Dr.   JOSEPH    LKMAIRE. 

(Surgeon  -  Dentist  J 


FIRST    PRACTICING    DEXTIST    IN    AMERICA. 


THE 

RISE,  FALL  AND  REVIVAL 


OF 


DENTAL  PROSTHESIS 


BY 


B.  J.  CIGRAND.  B.  S..  D.  D.  S.^ 

Professor    of    Dental    Prosthesis    and    Metallurgy    in    the 
American   College    of   Dental  Surgery;    Lecturer   in  the 
Practitioner's  Post-Graduate  Course  of  the  Same  Insti- 
tution;   Member    of    the   Illinois   State   Dental  So- 
ciety; The  Chicago  Dental  Society;  The  Chicago 
Dental    Club;     The   Hayden    Dental    Society; 
The    Dental    Legal    Association    of    Illi- 
nois;   The  Columbian   Dental  Club,   and 
Kindred    Dental    Societies. 


FULLY    ANNOTATED    AND    ILLUSTRATED 


Second  Edition,  Recised  and  Enlarged 


CHICAGO. 

THE   PERIODICAL   PUBLISHING   CO. 

434  waeansia  avenue. 


Entered  according  to  Act   of   Congress  in  the  years  1892  and   1893,  by 

Dr.  B.  J.  CIGRAND, 

in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


-WLi 
II 


To  HENRY  J.  M'KELLOPS,  D.  D.  S  , 

Who  has  ardently  labored   in   behalf  of  the  dental 
profession     in    gathering    home    the   published 
records  extant  on  dental   subjects;  and  has 
thus  created  and  established  the  largest 
and  most  complete  dental  bibliotheke 
in  the  world.      In  these  "Archives  of 
Dental     Literature"    the    present 
volume    was  evolved,   and   for 
the  liberal  hospitality  shown 
the   writer   a   tribute    of 
gratefulness  is  mani- 
fested   in    this  in- 
scription by  the 
author. 


THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


CONTENTS. 


1.  FIRST  PREFACE, 

2.  SECOND  PREFACE, 

3.  SALUTATION, 

4.  INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS, 

5.  DENTAL  PROSTHESIS. 

6.  EGYPTIAN  DENTAL  ART, 

7.  HEBREW 

8.  CHINESE 

9.  JAPANESE 

10.  PHCENICIAN 

11.  ARABIAN 

12.  GRECIAN 

13.  ROMAN 

14.  ETRURIAN 
I  5..  FALL  and  REVIVAL  of  DENTAL  ART, 

16.  EUROPEAN  DENTAL  ART, 

17.  FRENCH 

18.  DUTCH 

19.  ENGLISH 

20.  GERMAN 

21.  AUSTRIAN 

22.  AMERICAN 

23.  -  DENTAL  EDUCATION, 

24.  "  -  LITERATURE, 

25.  ''  -  PERIODICALS 

26.  ARTISTS  AND  SCIENTISTS, 

27.  DENTISTRY  an  ART  and  SCIENCE, 

28.  MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY, 

29.  CONCLUSION,    - 

30.  APPENDIX, 

31.  VALEDICTORY  REMARKS,     - 

32.  NAME  INDEX, 

33.  SUBJECT  INDEX, 


9 

12 

15 
16 
21 

27 

41 
46 

51 

58 

64 

70 

84 

102 

1 10 

125 

134 

143 

145 

155 

162 

164 

204 

223 
224 

235 
257 
263 

275 
286 
290 
291 
301 


PLATE  I, 


Specimer^s  of  Ancient   Dental  Art. 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 


PROEM    TO    STUDENTS. 

The  title  of  this  lecture  is  so  fully  indicative  of 
its  character  that  scarcely  a  word  of  "foretalk,"  as 
the  Saxons  express  it,  seems  necessary.  As  this  is 
my  initiatory  talk  to  you,  m}^  lecture"^  will  be  of  a 
prefatory  character  in  inaugurating  the  course  in 
Dental  Prosthesis.  All  that  is  requisite  by  way  of 
preface  here,  is  to  give  brief  account  of  the  within 
contained  remarks.  This  proem  may,  at  the  same 
time,  serve  as  an  apology  for  some  of  the  defects 
of  which  the  author  is  fully  conscious. 

Believing  it  necessary  that  the  dental  student, 
in  beginning  the  study  of  his  chosen  profession, 
.should  know  something  of  its  antique  birth,  growth 
and  development,  I  felt  it  a  duty  incumbent  on 
myself  to  open  our  acquaintance  by  cordially  intro- 
ducing to  you  the  history  of  this  branch  of  dental 
art  and  science. 

*The  first  edition  was  the  outcome  of  four  lectures  delivered  before 
the  students  of  the  American  Colleg-e  of  Dental  Sur^erj-,  1892. 


lO  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Knowing  full  well  that  many  of  you  before 
coming  here  had  little  knowledge  relative  to  this 
interesting  theme,  on  account  of  non-access  to 
journals,  I  am  confident  we  can  profitably  spend 
our  first  hours. 

In  many  of  our  dental  schools,  during  the 
entire  three  or  more  years  that  the  student  serves 
within  their  walls,  not  one  sentence  does  he  hear 
concerning  the  struggles  and  advancements  of  his 
prehistoric-professional-forefathers;  and,  sorry  to 
say,  the  worthy  college  from  which  I  hail  was 
addicted  to  this  apparent  neglect. 

Many  months  have  been  spent  in  gleaning  the 
contents  of  this  lecture,  which  is  the  result,  rather, 
of  occasional  moments  of  leisure  from  the  duties  of 
an  active  professional  life  than  of  a  special  devotion 
to  the  cultivation  of  any  superb  thesis  on  the 
subject. 

Such  sources  of  information  were  consulted  as 
were  deemed  advantageous  towards  compiling  and 
completing  the  lecture.  Among  these  "help- 
mates" I  gladly  mention:  Cosmos,  Review,  Items 
of  Interest  and  many  voluminous  references  in  the 
various  libraries. 

In  conclusion,  will  add,  should  this  published 
research  merit  a  dcdicatorial  note,  I  am  certain 
none  more  worthily  deserve  the  inscription  than 
my  many  kind  and  thorough  instructors,  and  more 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


especially  Drs.  Haskell  and  Sherwood,  whose 
untiring  devotion  has  placed  them  in  my  memory's 
safe-keeping. 


Chicago,  Sept.  21,  1892. 


12  THE    RISE,    FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  first  edition  of  "The  Rise,  Fall  and  Re- 
vival of  Dental  Prosthesis  "  was,  with  the  exception 
of  one  hundred  copies,  entirely  exhausted  in  Chi- 
cago. This  unexpected  large  sale  has  agreeabl}- 
surprised  the  compiler,  and  believing  that  this  im- 
mediate market  was  a  criterion  of  its  popularity,  a 
second  edition  was  the  natural  outgrowth. 

Having  noted  carefull}-  the  imperfections  that 
revealed  themselves  on  a  studious  and  painstaking 
review  of  the  former  edition,  the  necessity  of  a 
thorough  revision  ol  the  whole  bod}'  of  the  orig- 
inal text  became  apparent;  and  though  this  involved 
extended  research  and  much  labor,  neither  have 
been  spared  in  the  effort  to  render  the  present  vol- 
ume a  faithful  exponent  of  the  evolution  of  dental 
art  and  science. 

In  the  work  of  expurgation  and  amendment  of 
the  first  volume  I  have  availed  myself  of  man}-  of 
the  suggestions  made  in  various  reviews  of  the 
original    book,  and  take  this  opportunity  and  oc- 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  13 

casion  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  for  the  consid- 
eration shown  toward  it,  both  by  the  reviewers  and 
readers.  The  revision  it  has  undergone  will,  I  hope, 
make  it  worthy  of  the  continued  patronage  of  those 
who  have  hitherto  shown  it  such  liberal  encour- 
agement. None  knew  better  than  myself  how 
numerous  were  its  imperfections.  The  manner  in 
which  they  have  been  overlooked  has  served  to 
convince  me  that  those  who  were  judges  of  the  art 
and  science,  and  could  deal  authoritatively,  were 
disposed  to  encourage  any  attempt  at  its  improv- 
ment,  even  though  such  attempt  were  marked 
by  numerous  shortcomings.  Doubtless  the  kind 
reviewers  saw  that  the  book  aimed  at  much  more 
than  was  directly  expressed  upon  its  pages.  At  the 
best,  therefore,  such  undertaking,  of  embracing  the 
whole  history  of  Dental  Prosthesis,  as  viewed  by  a 
single  individual,  must  needs  be  in  some  partic- 
ulars unsatisfactory,  if  anything  like  a  rigorous 
criticism  be  applied. 

It  may  be  truly  said  that  the  interest  of  the 
dental  profession  at  the  present  time  requires  that 
the  encouragement  this  work  has  received,  should  be 
extended  to  every  undertaking  of  its  kind.  I  hope 
that  the  success  which  has  in  this  manner  attended 
my  labors  may  prove  a  stimulus  to  others  who  may 
devote  themselves  with  possible  better  results  to  a 
similar  task. 

To  those  two  reviewers,  who,  after  having  hastily 


14  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

scanned  the  first  edition,  and  then  with  anxiety 
sharply  criticised  its  contents,  I  beg  to  say:  that 
as  professional  reviewers,  critics,  you  have  done 
nobly,  considering,  you  have  never  chanced  to  read, 
or  presumably  forgotten,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism," in  which  able  treatise  are  found  these  few 
words: 

"  Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see 

Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  ne'er  is,  nor  ne'er  shall  be." 

I  am  fully  conscious  of  existing  defects  in  this 
work.  The  word  "  perfection,"  as  we  are  aware, 
occurs  in  the  "  Book  of  Nature"  only. 

So  far  as  facts  are  concerned,  their  particulars, 
and  source,  I  have  specifically  indicated  the  proper 
credit  and  authority  in  their  appropriate  places 
throughout  the  body  of  the  Avork.  It  would  be 
most  unjust  to  conclude  this  preface  without  pub- 
licly acknowledging  the  great  obligations  which  I 
owe  to  scores  of  eminent  men  in  the  profession. 
Many  of  these  beacon  lights  have  contributed  val- 
uable suggestions,  intelligent  criticisms,  and  even 
several  have  supplied  lengthy  correspondence. 

Trusting  the  present  volume  may  be  found  to 
reflect  with  reasonable  fidelity  the  present  advanced 
state  of  this  department  of  Dentistry,  I  respectfully 
submit  it  to  the  profession  in  the  hope  of  its  con- 
tinued confidence. 

Very  Sincerely,  B.  J.  C. 

Chicago,  March  24, 1893. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 5 


SALUTATION. 


God    bless     those    Surgeons    and    Dentists! 

May  their  good  deeds   be  returned  upon 

them    a    thousand    fold.      May    they 

have    the    felicity    in    the    next 

world     to    have    successful 

operations     performed 

upon  them  through 

all  eternity." 

Washington  Irving. 


1 6  THE   RISE,  FALL  AND   REVIVAL 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


In  Historical  Reifiew  of  Denial  Prosthesis. 


Our  happy  fortune  to  live  in  an  age  whose 
masterpieces  of  accomplishment  in  art,  science, 
industry  and  commerce,  put  to  shame  the  extrav- 
ao;ant  fictions  of  oriental  tales  and  the  wonders 
ascribed  to  the  gods  and  heroes  of  ancient  myth- 
ology, must  ever  inspire  us  with  grateful  satisfaction. 
The  changes  produced  by  recent  investigations 
and  discoveries  are  so  vast  and  appear  so  rapid  that 
it  is  impossible  to  follow  them  and  comprehend  the 
power  and  thoroughness  of  the  transformations  that 
are  daily  taking  place  in  the  world  around  us.  The 
ipplication  of  steam  and  electricity  astonish  us  by 
their  wide  range  of  influence  on  the  conditions 
and  relations  of  men;  the  ease  and  speed  of  move- 
ment and  intercourse,  constantly  increasing,  are 
ever  putting  us  in  new  and  unfamiliar  situations. 
We  have  hardly  accustomed  our  thoughts  and 
habits  to  the  one,  before  we  are  hurried  on  into  the 
other.      The  faithful  and  abundant  light   shed  by 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  17 

science  and  the  press  does  not  suffice  to  keep  our 
minds  fully  informed  of  the  rapid  progress  that  goes 
on  in  all  departments  of  human  life. 

It  is  plain  that  we  have  entered  on  a  new  era, 
the  most  extraordinary  and  momentous  the  world 
lias  ever  seen.  The  old  and  imperfect  is  being 
uninterruptedly  torn  and  cleared  away  and  every- 
thing thoroughly  reconstructed.  The  explanation 
is,  that  we  are  now  setting  up  the  grand  temple 
of  civilization,  the  separate  stones  and  pillars  of 
which  each  nation  and  age  has  been  commissioned 
to  hew  and  carve;  and  Father  Time  has  requested 
that  all  this  grand  masonry  be  left  at  the  quarry 
to  await  the  time  when,  all  the  material  being  ready, 
the  master  builder,  America,  should  collect  all  the 
scattered  parts  and  raise  the  whole  edifice  and 
designate  the  gorgeous  structure  ''The  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  " — this  to  the  astonishment 
and  joy  of  mankind. 

All  the  institutions  and  structures  of  the  past 
may  be  considered  temporary,  erected  in  haste  from 
the  material  nearest  at  hand,  not  for  permanence 
but  to  serve  the  present  time,  while  the  special  task 
of  the  nations  of  this  age  is  being  performed.  The 
races  nearest  the  birth  of  mankind  worked  on  the 
rougher  parts  of  the  ideal  edifice  that  enter  into  the 
stable  foundations;  those  grand  races,  the  Egyp- 
tians, Grecians,  Etrurians  and  Romans,  furnished 
the  noble  outline  which  our  modern  humanity  per- 


1 8  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

fected  by  supplying  what  still  lacked  completion  and 
adornment.  America  was  reserved,  designedly, 
for  so  many  ages  to  furnish  a  suitable  and  unen- 
cumbered location  for  these  central  halls,  mighty 
pillars  and  towering  mirrors  of  perfection. 

We  begin  to  see  that  time,  thought  and  expe- 
rience have  not  wrought  in  vain ;  that  progress  is  not 
phantom  of  the  imagination  ;  that  the  human  race 
is  essentially  a  unit  ;  that  civilization  has  been 
growing  through  all  centuries,  and  is  now  approach- 
ing the  prime  of  its  manhood.  The  energies  of  all 
the  peoples  of  the  earth  are  prepared  to  exhibit 
unheard  of  achievements.  The  world  was  never  so 
completely  and  so  wisely  busy  as  now,  and  America 
stands  out  in  bold  relief  as  the  hospitable  "  Goddess 
of  Progress."  Within  these  halls  of  man  is  reflected 
the  true  status  of  human  accomplishment. 

In  dentistry,  the  advances  in  the  art  and  science 
during  the  past  forty  years  have  certainly  surpassed 
the  progress  of  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  older 
professions,  shall  here  be  most  accurately  por- 
trayed and  worthily  represented.  In  this  upward 
movement  the  members  of  the  profession  have 
borne  their  part.  All  honor  to  the  skillful  practi- 
tioners who  have  studied,  and  thought,  and  planned 
to  uplift  their  profession  and  benefit  their  patients 
and  themselves  by  devising  improved  methods  and 
better  instruments  and  appliances.  But  what  they 
did,  alone  could   not  have  caused    the   rapid   pro- 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  19 

gress  of  which  dentistry  boasts.  It  needed  the  co- 
operation of  the  merchant  and  the  manufacturer  to 
put  the  improved  methods  and  appliances  where 
they  would  benefit  the  profession  at  large:  com- 
mercial judgment  as  to  what  was  likely  to  be  ap- 
proved and  demanded;  commercial  courage  to 
back  up  this  judgment  by  investing  money  freely  in 
what  that  judgement  approved;  manufacturing 
skill  to  know  and  enforce  the  highest  attainable 
standard  of  excellence  in  whatsoever  passed 
through  its  hands;  and,  last  but  not  least,  com- 
mercial methods  to  introduce  successfully  what 
genius  had  invented,  commercial  judgment  ap- 
proved, and  manufacturing  skill  produced. 

Of  the  grand  strides  of  progress  few  branches 
of  science  and  art  deserve  a  higher  rating  and 
garner  a  more  lasting  glory  than  Dental  Prosthesis, 
"the  mother  of  longevity." 

To  the  faithful  dental  student,  who  is  ever 
yearning  for  fresh  draughts  of  information,  every 
subject  that  pertains  to  the  history  and  progress  of 
dental  art  and  science  is  fraught  with  the  deepest 
interest,  and  probably  no  feature  in  the  annals  of 
dentistry  solicit  his  attention  sooner,  and  merit 
such  sincere  consideration  as  does  the  story  of  the 
rise,  fall  and  revival  of  the  dental  art.  The  dentist 
who  is  ignorant  of  the  beginning  of  the  trials  and 
tribulations  of  the  early  surgeon-dentist  is  not 
unlike  the  patriot  who  glories  in  the  triumphs  and 


20  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

achievements  of  the  native  land,  but  knows  not  of 
the  making  of  the  established  institution  he  so 
fervently  loves;  such  patriotism  is  but  local  and  su- 
perficial at  that. 

There  is  an  Arabian  maxim  of  much  truth  which 
says:  "If  you  are  about  to  acquaint  yourself  with 
a  man,  first  learn  where  he  was  born,  and  next 
how  he  was  raised."  And  this  good  advice  in 
sentiment  might  well  be  given  to  those  who  are 
about  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  namely:  first  learn  of  the 
origin  of  the  art  or  science  and  next  determine  its 
progress. 

The  dental  practitioner,  on  the  contrary,  usually 
toward  the  end  of  his  professional  career,  learns  of 
the  latent  beams  of  dental  history  while,  had  he 
gleaned  the  information  in  his  initiatory  studies 
of  the  art  and  science,  he  would  have  more  fully 
appreciated  the  modern  status  and  advancement 
of  his  calling.  But  the  old  saw,  ''Better  late 
than  never,"  is  quite  applicable,  and  hence  in  this 
small  tome  the  author  solicits  the  attention  of  both 
the  already  learned,  and  the  ambitious  beginner, 
and  trusts  these  fragmentary  parts  of  the  dental 
history,  as  presented  here  in  an  unbroken  chain, 
may  call  forth  a  high  admiration  for,  and  sin- 
cere devotion  to,  Dental  Prosthesis. 

In  order  that  we  may  more  clearly  understand 
the  historic  narrative,  let  us  see  if  we  all  agree  as 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  21 

to  the  meaning  of  the  term  Dental  Prosthesis.  No 
doubt  we  are  all  harmonious  when  we  analyze  the 
first  word  Dental,  and  say  it  is  of  Latin  origin,  and, 
as  applied  here,  is  the  simple  adjective  form  of  the 
Latin  noun  "dens,"  a  tooth.  But  we  are  apt  to 
differ  materially  as  to  the  rendering  of  Prosthesis. 
Present  time  dictionaries  tell  us  that  this  word  is 
of  Greek  derivation  and  signifies,  add  to,  replace, 
affix,  or  restore."^  Thus  the  term  Dental  Prosthesis 
is  a  combination  of  two  words,  the  one  of  Latin, 
the  other  of  Greek  origin,  and  when  connected  in 
their  literal  sense  designates  "tooth  addition," 
"tooth  replacement,"  "tooth  affixion"  or  "tooth 
restoration."  Dental  Prosthesis  would  seem  to 
imply  nearly  all  dental  operation,  since  little  else  is 
the  dentist  called  upon  to  do  other  than  replace, 
add  to,  affix  and  restore  dental  organs.  This 
would  mean  that  all  specialities  of  dentistry  are 
branches  of  Dental  Prosthesis,  t  which,  in  fact,  is 
the  case,  though  not  generally  so  accepted. 
Hence  if  the  dentist  fills  a  crown  cavity  with  foil 
or  plastics  he  simply  restores  the  dental  organ  by 

♦These  dictionaries:  Cenlurj',  Encyclopaedic,  Webster's,  Inter- 
national, Thomas'  Medical,  Dungrlison's,  Zell's  Encyclopaedic  and 
Greek-English. 

tDental  Review,  vol.  V.,  p.  438. 

Proceeding's  of  Illinois  Dental  Societ.v,  1891. 

Address— Magill  before  Illinois  Dental  Society,  1891. 

Dental  Cosmos,  New  Series,  vol.  XI.,  p.  315. 

Ibid,  vol.  XXVI.,  pp.  180,  181. 

Ibid,  vol.  XXXII.,  p.  1004. 

Proceedings    of    American    Dental   Association,  1884— "Distinctive 
Names  and  Phrases." 


22  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

replacement  ;  if  he  crowns  a  root  with  porcelain  or 
gold-shell  crown  he  again  resorts  to  prosthetic 
art,  and  restores  by  addition  ;  if  he  replant  or 
transplant  a  tooth  or  teeth,  he  further  follows  pros- 
thesis and  restores  by  replacement  ;  if  he  attach 
to  the  natural  teeth  several  artificial  ones  by  means 
of  a  system  of  bridgework,  he  but  restores  the  den- 
ture by  addition  ;  if  he  treat  with  the  aid  of  medic- 
inal agencies  a  sore  tooth,  he  similarly  labors  in  a 
prosthetic  sense,  since  he  restores  the  tooth  to  its 
natural  health;*  if  he  is  sought  to  relock  a  jaw  or 
aid  in  heaHng  a  fractured  maxilla,  he  replaces  and 
restores,  thus  again  adopting  prosthetic  principles. 
There  are  but  few  operations  of  which  I  now  think, 
that  a  dentist's  services  are  sought,  which  are  not 
indirectly  prosthetic,  and  among  these  are  the  devi- 
talization of  a  nerve,  the  administration  of  an 
anaesthetic  and  the  extraction  of  a  tooth. 

Latest  authorities  pronounce  the  custom  of  say- 
ing Prosthetic  Dentistry  as  incorrect,  and  should  be 
designated  Dental  Prosthesis;  "tooth  replacement," 
not  "  replacement  tooth,"  as  in  the  former  remark,  t 

The  antonym  of  Dental  Prosthesis  is  Dental 
Aphaerisis,  which  implies,  to  "take  from,"  "omit," 
"remove"  or   "subtract,"  i.  e,,  the  extraction  of  a 


^Prosthetic  Hygiene— Prof.  J.  Hall  Lewis,  pamphlet,  1890. 
Journal     Fuer     Zahnheilkunde.     vol.     VII.,    p.     180— "Prosthesen 
Heilung-." 

fWe  shall  see  the  rational  reason  for  this  when  we  study,  later  in 
this  work,  the  terms  Mechanical  Dentistry,  viz:  Dental  Prosthesis. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  23 

tooth  or  removal  of  an  ulcer  or  tumor.  Hence  a  fair 
definition  for  prosthetic  dental  art  would  be  as 
given  by  Dr.  Harris  : 

"Dental  Prosthesis  is  that  branch  of  dental 
science  which  teaches  the  art  of  replacing  lost 
organs  of  the  mouth  or  any  part  thereof  ;  it  includes 
the  laws  and  principles  which  determine  and  regu- 
late the  processes  employed  in  the  construction  of 
all  forms  of  dental  mechanism  ;  also  the  properties 
and  relations  of  all  materials  used  in  these  processes. 
Replacement  and  therapeutics  are  its  distinctive 
dental  peculiarities."  "^ 

Correctly  spelled,  the  word  has  the  following 
letters — p-r-o-s-t-h-e-s-i-s  ;  t  but  of  late  it  seems 
permissible  to  render  it  p-r-o-t-h-e-s-i-s;  this  latter 
custom,  however,  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  true 
acceptance  of  its  specific  use  relative  to  dental  art. 
The  Greek  preposition  "pro"  signifies  "before"  or 
"forward,"  and  the  root  word  "thesis"  in  Greek 
means  "to  place,"  hence,  according  to  rules  of 
synthesis,  we  would  determine  the  word  to  mean 
"to  place  before;"  for  example,  in  the  science  of 
philology  we  use  the  term  "prothesis"  with  such 
intent,  when  in  synthesising  we  prefix  or  "place 
before"  the  root  word  a  syllable  as  be-loved  and 
re-turn.  J     On  the  other  hand  the  word  "prosthesis" 

*Harris'  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dentistry,  1889,  p.  715. 
tUnabridg-ed  dictionaries  of  present  time. 

Medical  and  Dental  catalof^ues  of  the  Columbian  World's  Fair. 
tDictionaries;  Century,  Encyclopaedic  and  Zell's. 


24  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

serves  us  better,  since  we  find  that  the  prefix  "pros" 
in  Greek  signifies  "  to  add  "  or  *'toput  to;"  and 
hence  joined  to  the  substantive,  '  'thesis  "  (to  place), 
signifies  ' '  to  put  in  place  "or  "  replace, "  which  lat- 
ter form  fully  answers  the  latent  meaning. 

When  the  word  is  spelled  p-r-o-s-t-h-e-s-i-s,  it 
has  three  syllables,  pros-the-sis,  and  may  be  pro- 
nounced either  with  primary  accent  on  the  first, 
and  secondary  accent  on  the  second  syllable  ;  or 
primary  accent  on  the  second,  and  secondary  on 
the  first  syllable  ;  in  both  instances  all  vowels  ex- 
cept "  e"  have  the  short  sound  ;  the  latter  pronoun- 
ciation,  by  way  of  euphony,  is  the  favorite. 

Dental  Prosthesis,  as  an  art,^  has  been  prac- 
ticed for  ages.  Dentistry  is  generally  considered 
a  modern  science,  but  on  careful  investigation  we 
find,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is  ancient,  and  there 
is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  the  art  is  of 
great  antiquity.  Although  it  is  less  than  a  century 
that  it  has  taken  the  rank  of  a  distinct  profession, 
attention  was  directed  from  the  earliest  period  of 
civilization  to  the  means  of  preserving  and  im- 
proving the  beauty  of  natural  teeth.  In  order  that 
all  possible  doubt  be  eliminated,  as  to  its  antiquity, 
we  will  give  it  careful  consideration,  and  in  no  small 
measure  profit  by  the  research. 

Fortunately,  we  are  not  confined  to  mere  tradi- 


^Whj-  Dental  Prosthesis  is  considered  both  an  Art  and  a  Science  will 
be  shown  later  in  this  work. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  25 

tion  nor  to  ocean-lore  for  evidences  of  vanished 
races,  and  the  wonderful  monuments  of  their 
accomplishments,  or  the  brilliant  stages  of  civiliza- 
tion. After  carefully  perusing  the  story  of  the 
ancients  we  learn  that  much  credit  belongs  them  as 
inventors,  promoters,  students  and  masters;  and 
that  much  which  we  claim  to  be  purely  modern 
conception,  on  close  study  proves  to  be  ancient, 
most  ancient. 

If  we  seek  for  historical  knowledge  of  any  im- 
portant invention,  discovery  or  attainment,  we 
must  conduct  our  investigations  into  the  remote 
past,  in  which  are  buried  marvelous  secrets  that 
ages  ago  perished  with  their  possessors.  A  thou- 
sand illustrations  might  be  introduced  in  proof  of 
the  claim  that  civilizations  rise,  fall  and  revive  like 
the  tides  of  the  sea;  for  "human  progress,"  says 
J.  W.  Buel,  ''is  so  intermittent  that  its  mutations 
are  like  the  motion  of  a  pendulum,  swinging  now 
across  the  valley  of  benighted  barbarism  and  up 
the  gentle  slope  toward  the  pinnacle  of  exaltation, 
then  driven  back  by  adverse  influences,  scourges, 
devastating  wars,  immortalities,  until,  gaining  mo- 
mentum, it  crosses  the  shadowy  abysses  and  rises 
to  the  peak  of  human  discouragement.  Here  the 
pendulum  pauses  until  the  gravity  of  ambition 
pushes  it  again  forward,  thus  imparting  a  recipro- 
cal impulse  which  keeps  it  in  perpetual  motion." 

How  applicable   this   quotation  is  to  the   pro- 


26  THE    RISE,    FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

gress  of  dental  art  and  science,  the  following  pages 
we  hope  may  tell. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  art  of  dentistry  no  one  can 
speak  with  certainty,  as  its  early  history  is  shrouded 
in  the  mists  of  oblivion,  but  dental  operations  we 
learn,  and  on  most  eminent  authority,  are  recorded 
in  very  remote  times.  It  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine the  native  home  of  Dental  Prosthesis,  but  in 
all  probabilities  Egypt,  the  most  highly  civilized 
nation  of  the  ancient  world,  claims  the  art  as  a 
cherished  creation. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS,  2J 


EGYPTIAN  DENTAL  ART. 


Before  entering  into  a  detailed  account  of  Egyp- 
tian dental  art  it  is  necessary  to  remind  the  student 
of  ancient  history  of  a  few  latent  facts,  in  order 
that  liberal  allowance  may  be  given  to  ancient  tra- 
ditions, narratives  and  history. 

In  the  year  332  B.  C.  Alexander  the  Great 
founded  in  Upper  Egypt  a  city  which  he  appro- 
priately named  Alexandria,  and  made  it  the  capitol 
of  Egypt.  Alexander  had  been  a  faithful  student 
under  Aristotle,  and  it  was  his  ambition  to  establish 
in  his  newly  planned  city  the  largest  library  and 
museum  of  the  world.  He,  however,  died  a  few 
years  subsequent  to  the  founding,  had  he  lived  a  score 
years  longer  his  anticipations  would  have  been  real- 
ized, for  we  learn  that  in  321  B.  C.  the  library  and 
museum  contained  upward  of  700,000  volumes,  and 
as  many  more  rolls  of  papyri,  thus  the  most  remark- 
able collection  of  the  ancient  world, ^  containing  the 
literature,  art  and  science  of  Greece,  Italy,  Phoeni- 
cia, Arabia,  India,  China  and  Continental  Europe. 
In  connection  with  this  voluminous  library  was  the 
museum  in  which,  at  public  expense,  all  the  students 
of  the  world  gathered  and  studied  under  the  imme- 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  I.,  p.  498. 
American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  291. 
Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  58. 


28  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

diate  instruction  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  of 
literature,  theology,  art  and  science.^  This  museum 
or  academy  of  science  was  in  many  respects  not 
unlike  a  modern  university.  The  Alexandria 
library  at  that  time  was,  in  truth,  the  depository  of 
all  the  written  thoughts  of  man.  Money  was 
lavishly  spent  in  order  that  the  library  be  amply 
provided  with  means  for  acquiring  information,  and 
under  the  watchful  eye  of  "monarchs  of  learning" 
the  world  was  enlightened  and  the  progress  of 
civilization  was  marked  by  the  term,  Alexandrian 
Age.  The  names  of  Euclid,  Hipparchus,  Clement, 
Origen,  Theon,  and  his  daughter  Hypatia,  and 
many  others  of  equal  distinction,  shed  their  glory 
upon  the  literary  reputation  of  grand  Alexandria. 
With  such  advantages  as  these  is  it  any  wonder 
that  this  institution  gained  a  world-wide  renown 
and  exerted  such  an  ennobling  influence  on  man- 
kind ? 

But  what  interests  us  as  dentists  more  in  par- 
ticular is,  that  Alexandria  was  especially  distin- 
guished for  her  medical,  dental  and  optical  schools,  t 

*Zeirs  Enc^-clopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  60. 

Enc3clopaedic  Dictionar}-,  vol.  I.,  p.  131. 

Centur}-  Dictionar3-,  vol.  1.,  137. 

Alexandria  and  Her  Schools — King-slej-,  1854. 

History-  of  Alexandrian  Schools— Matter,  2  vols.,  1844. 

Alexandrian  Schools — Simon,  2  vols.,  1845. 
tHerodotus,  vol.  II.,  p.  84. 

Peoples'  Library-  of  Information— Washburn,  1876,  p.  269. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  X.,  pp.  346,  347,  348. 

Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XII.,  p.  253. 

L.  C.  Ing-ersoll,  Methods  of  Dental  Education,  1890. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  29 

Here  lived  and  labored  Herophilus,  Galen,  Aetius, 
and  many  others  who  adorn  the  early  annals  of 
medical  science.  The  splendor  and  glory  of  this 
hospitable  seat  of  learning  did  not  remain  unshaken, 
for  in  80  B.  C,  Ptolemy  Alexander,  a  weak  and 
vicious  monarch,  bequeathed  the  city  and  its  valu- 
able collections  to  the  ambitious  Romans,  under 
whom  the  city  as  an  enlightened  educational  centre 
rapidly  declined.  Notwithstanding  the  removal  of 
many  of  the  most  precious  works  of  art  and  science 
to  Rome,  its  greatness  continued  to  grow  until 
30  B.  C,  when  Julius  Caesar  waged  unrelenting 
war,  and  the  library  and  museums  were  partially 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  final  work  of  de:?truction 
took  place  in  A.  D.  642  by  the  Saracens.  Amrou, 
the  commander  of  the  army  of  Omar,  was  dis- 
posed to  spare  the  library,  and  wrote  to  the  Caliph 
to  obtain  his  consent,  but  the  bigoted  Moham- 
medan wrote  back  his  well  known  reply:  *'If  these 
writings  of  the  Greeks  agree  with  the  Koran,  or 
book  of  God,  they  are  useless  and  need  not  be  pre- 
served; if  they  disagree  they  are  pernicious  and 
ought  to  be  destroyed. "  The  sentence  of  destruction 
was  executed,  and  accordingly,  it  is  said,  the  books 
were  employed  to  heat  the  4,000  baths  of  the  city; 
such  was  their  number  that  six  months  were  barely 
sufficient  time  for  the  consumption  of  the  precious 
fuel.-=^ 

*The  Histories  of  Alexandria,  as  quoted  in  preceding-  pages. 


30  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Thus  the  intended  legacy  was  consigned  to  the 
angry  flames,  and  the  loss  is  inestimable.  This 
conflagration  nearly  completely  burned  the  authen- 
tic history  of  antiquity  and  left  tradition  prime 
factor  on  the  field  of  learning.  In  consequence  of 
this  destruction  we  moderns  are  much  at  the  mercy 
of  narration  and  similar  weak  authorities;  but, 
happy  still,  the  entire  records  of  man  were  not 
destroyed,  since  when  the  Romans  acquired  the 
Alexandrian  library  they  carried  multifarious  vol- 
umes, records  and  works  of  art  and  science  to  Rome.  * 
Through  these  latter  archives,  and  in  addition  the 
minor  records  found  throughout  the  ancient  king- 
doms and  empires,  we  manage  to  gather  much  that 
proves  authentic.  From  what  has  been  preserved 
we  learn  that  the  Egyptians  cultivated  the  science 
and  art  of  medicine  at  an  early  date,  each  physi- 
cian applying  himself  to  some  one  specialty,  t 

"]\Ian  ever  since  his  creation  has  been  subjected 


*American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  pp.  2'X),  2*91. 
Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol,  I.,  p.  85. 

tHerodotus— Euterpe,  p.  84. 

Travels  and  Correspondence  of  Dr.  C.  A.  King-sbury— Pamphlet, 
1863. 

Odontographic  Journal,  vol.  I.,  pp.  86,  87. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  X..  p.  348. 

Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XII.,  p.  253. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science  in  America— Dexter,  1876,  p.  1. 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  vol.  II.,  p.  88. 

Transactions  of  Odontological  Society  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  YIL, 
X.  S.,  p.  239. 

History  of  Alexandrian  Schools,  quoted  on  preceding-  pages. 

Peoples'  Library  of  Information— Washburn,  1876,  p.  269. 

Dental  Review,  vol.  III.,  p.  435. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  3 1 

to  disease  and  that  necessity,  which  has  ever  been 
the  mother  of  invention  and  discovery,  must  have 
early  taught  him  to  use  some  means  for  its  allevia- 
tion or  cure,  rough  and  uncouth  perhaps,  still  in  a 
measure  answering  his  purpose.  Thus  we  find 
ancient  writers  referring  to  the  practice  of  dentistry 
as  being  coeval  with  the  birth  of  medicine.  Modern 
research  has  conclusively  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  dental  caries  was  prevalent  in  those  ancient 
days,  and  that  this  disease  also  received  due  and 
marked  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  early  specialists 
of  medicine.  The  Egyptians,  as  well  as  their 
border  neighbors,  divided  the  pains  and  ills  that 
affected  different  organs  and  members  of  the  body 
into  different  classes,  not  knowing  that  many  dis- 
orders originated  in  the  same  locality.  Thus  they 
began  to  study  human  ailments;  each  practitioner 
devoted  his  time  to  one  class  of  disease  having  its 
existence  in  one  portion  of  the  body.  Thus  there 
sprung  up  oculists,  aurists  and  dentists.  But  in  as 
much  as  the  teeth  were  not  so  subject  to  affection 
as  other  organs  the  dentists  were  neither  so  plenti- 
ful in  those  days  nor  so  elevated  in  repute.""^ 

Thus  away  back  in  dim  centuries,  when  myth- 
ology had  its  happy  reign  and  historians  began  to 
chronicle  in  their  order  transpiring  events,  we  find 
dentistry  was  studied  and  practiced  with  great 
success.      There    can   be    little   doubt    that    sunny 

♦New  York  Dental  Journal,  vol,  I.,  p.  5. 


32  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Egypt  was  the  birthplace  of  ancient  dentistry;  at 
any  rate  the  Greek  historian,  Herodotus,  cites  that 
the  Egyptians  practiced  dental  art.  In  his  second 
book  narrating  his  travels  through  Egypt  he  states 
that  the  art  and  practice  of  medicine  was  divided 
among  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  each  physician 
or  surgeon  "applying  himself  to  one  class  of 
disease  only  ;  some  to  the  head,  others  to  the  eye 
others  to  the  teeth  and  even  others  to  internal  dis- 
orders." 

And  although  little  is  known  of  the  attainments 
of  these  ancient  practitioners  of  dentistry,  judging 
by  the  work  deposited  in  some  of  the  tombs  of 
Egypt,  one  would  willingly  conclude  that  the 
practitioners  of  that  time  were  comparatively 
learned  and  fairly  proficient  in  the  science  of 
Dental  Prosthesis.- 

The  great  Egyptologist,  Ebers,  has  proven  that 
in  the  Egyptian  medical  schools  they  had  special 
teachers  of  dentistry  upwards  of  three  thousand 
years  ago.t 

Had  Egyptian  universities  their  chairs  of  dental 
surgery?  If  so,  an  added  laurel  may  deck  the 
fame  of  the  "land  of  science  and  sacred  recollec- 
tions."    The  following  from  the  eminent  and  reli- 

*Surg-er.v  Paulus  Aegineta   (translated  by  Francis  Adams  for  the 
Sj-denham  Societ3-;,  3  vols.,  1844. 

Dental  Art— Dr.  G.  Carabelli,  1  vol.,  1*44. 

Dental  Review,  vol.  III.,  p.  435.    Article  by  Dr.  John  J.  R.  Patrick. 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  vol.  II.,  p.  83. 
tPaulus  Aeg-ineta,  vol.  VI.,  p.  10. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  33 

able  historian,  Read,^  goes   far  to  establish   these 
facts: 

"The  physicians  were  compelled  to  prescribe 
for  their  patients  according  to  rules  set  down  in 
the  standard  works.  If  they  adopted  a  treat- 
ment of  their  own,  and  the  patient  did  not  recover, 
they  were  put  to  death.  Thus  even  in  desperate 
cases  heroic  remedies  could  not  be  tried,  and  ex- 
periment, the  first  condition  of  discovery,  was  dis- 
allowed. 

"It  is  one  of  the  first  axioms  of  medical  science 
that  no  one  is  competent  to  treat  the  diseases  of  a 
single  organ  unless  he  is  competent  to  treat  the 
diseases  of  the  whole  frame.  The  folly  of  divid- 
ing diseases  of  such  organs  as  the  head  and  stom- 
ach, between  which  the  most  intimate  sympathy 
exists,  is  evident  to  the  unlearned.  But  the  whole 
structure  is  united  with  delicate  white  threads  and 
innumerable  pipes  of  blood.  It  is  scarcely  possible 
for  any  complaint  to  influence  one  part  alone. 
The  Egyptian,  however,  was  marked  off,  like  a 
chess-board,  into  little  squares,  and  whenever  the 
pain  made  a  move  a  fresh  doctor  had  to  be  called 
in. 

"Even  their  books  (now  in  the  library  of 
Thebes),  so  few  in  number,  were  not  open  to  all 
the  members  of  the  learned  class.      They  were  the 

♦Martyrdom  of  Man— Read. 


34  '^HE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

manuals  of  the  various  departments  or  professions, 
and  each  profession  stood  apart;  each  profession 
was  even  subdivided  within  itself.  In  medicine 
and  surgery  there  were  no  general  practitioners. 
There  vrere  oculists,  aurists,  dentists,  doctors  of 
the  head,  doctors  of  the  stomach,  etc.,  and  each 
was  forbidden  to  invade  the  territory  of  his  col- 
leagues. This  specialist  arrangement  has  been 
highly  praised,  but  it  has  nothing  in  common  with 
that  which  has  arisen  in  modern  times." 

The  various  specialists  of  medicine  and  surgery, 
according  to  Rev.  William  Smith,  were  paid  their 
salaries  from  the  public  treasury,  and  thus  indirectly 
the  rich  paid  for  the  medical  service  rendered  to 
the  poor. 

Another  writer^  has  the  following  interesting 
catalogue  of  evidences:  "Some  (physicians)  made 
the  treatment  of  the  dental  organs  their  special 
branch  of  study;  and  although  we  are  unable  from 
the  records  that  have  come  down  to  us  to  obtain  a 
clear  and  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  exact  con- 
dition of  dental  science  and  art  at  that  early  period, 
we  have  no  difficulty  in  tracing  our  profession 
back  to  the  days  of  the  Egyptians,  through  the 
medium  of  historical  records,  as  well  as  from  the 
existing  evidences  and  specimens  of  dental  art 
discovered  now  and  then  in  the  mummified  bodies 
taken   from    the  tombs  and   catacombs    of   Egypt. 

*Travelsand  correspondence  of  Dr.  C.  A.  Kingsbury— pamphlet,  1868. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  35 

I  have  met  several  gentlemen,  whose  veracity  I 
could  not  question,  who  stated  that  they  had  not 
only  seen  artificial  teeth,  but  even  gold  fillings  in 
the  teeth  found  in  the  sarcophagi  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
Egyptians  attached  great  value  to  the  dental  organs 
and  one  of  their  most  severe  punishments  consisted 
in  having  one  of  the  front  teeth  extracted.  It 
would  be  natural  to  suppose  that  in  order  to  avoid 
suspicion  of  guilt,  as  well  to  restore  the  loss,  artifi- 
cial teeth  were  invented  and  substituted  for  the 
lost  organs."^   • 

Exhumed,  from  the  time  worn  Egyptian  tombs 
antedating  the  records  of  Herodotus,  mouldering 
skeletons  present  arrays  of  gold  filled  teeth  ;t 
and  able  authority,  states  that  the  art  of  clasp-work 
was  understood  to  some  exactness. 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  X.,  p.  348. 
tDental  Cosmos,  toI.  VIII.,  p.  607. 
Dr.  C.  A.  Kinj,'-sbury's  Correspondence— 1868. 
Western  Dental  Journal,  vol.  I.,  p.  294 
Archives  of  Dentistry,  vol  II.,  p.  88. 
American  C3-clopaedia,  vol.  VI.,  p.  21. 
Peoples'  Library  of  Information,  1876,  p.  270. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science  in  America,  bA"  Dr.  Dexter,  1876.  pp.  1  and2. 
British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  XXXI.,  p.  77. 
Ibid,  vol.  XXXI.,  p.  88. 
Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XV.,  p.  241. 
Research  of  Dr.  Mellersh. 

American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  IX.,  N.  S.,  p.  45. 
Dentistry  Amoncr  the  Ancients— Chap.  A.  Harris,  1859. 
Johnstons'  Dental  Miscellanj-,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  80. 
British  Odontolog-ical  Societ3'— Ancient  Dentistr.v,  1881. 
Popular    Account    of    the     Eg-yptians— Sir   Gardener   Wilkinson, 
X).  C.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  S„  vol.  II.,  p.  350. 

Crania  Eg-yptiaca— Morton,  1844,  pp.  10,  25. 
t  Items  of  Interest,  vol,  XV.,  p.  228. 


36  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

In  many  of  our  present  day  medical  and  dental 
journals  we  are  informed  that  in  some  of  the  royal 
mummies'^  taken  from  the  catacombs  of  Egypt,  sets 
of  artificial  teeth  were  discovered  t  in  which  the 
plates  were  of  wood  carved  to  fit  the  roof  of  the 
mouths,  v.-hile  the  teeth,  which  were  of  brass,  were 
ingeniously  attached.  Charles  Creighton,  the 
eminent  authority  on  the  history  of  general  surgery, 
says  this  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  relative  to  their 
dental  and  surgical  skill:  "Cupping  vessels  made 
of  cow-horn  have  been  found  in  ancient  Egyptian 
tombs.  On  monuments  and  walls  of  temples  are 
figures  of  patients  bandaged  and  undergoing  opera- 
tions at  the  hands  of  the  surgeons.  In  museum 
collections  of  Egyptian  antiquities  there  are  lancets, 
forceps,  knives,  probes,  scissors,  surgical  instru- 
ments for  the  ear  are  figured,  and  artificial  teeth 
have  been  found  in  the  mummies." 

Gold  work  was  understood  by  these  ancient 
practitioners.  A  set  of  artificial  teeth  was  dis- 
covered, the  base  of  solid  gold  and  the  teeth  of 
ivory.:!:     One  of  the  mummified  bodies  of  an  Egyp- 


*"It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  400,000  human  mummies 
were  made  in  ancient  Earypt.  Sepulchres  have  been  opened  in  which 
thousands  of  them  were  found  deposited  in  rows,  one  on  another,  without 
coffins.  Shiploads  have  been  transported  to  Enerland,  and  ground  up  for 
use  in  fertilizing  the  soil."'    John  J.  Anderson,  historian. 

+  Historical  Researches  upon  the  Dentist's  Art  Among  the  Ancients 
—Dr.  J.  R.  Duval,  Paris,  1808. 

^Narrative  of  the  Operations  and  Recent  Discoveries  Within  the 
Pyramids,  Temples,  Tombs  and  Excavations  in  Egypt  and  Nubia- 
Battista  Belzoni,  2  vols.,  London,  1822. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  37 

tian  Pharaoh  demonstrates   most  conclusively  that 

natural   teeth  were  not  only  well   cared   for   in  the 

way  of  gold    and    lead    fillings,  but   that  the  aged 

Pharaoh  had,  perhaps  by  accident,  lost  one  of  his 

incisors,    and    the    court   dentist   did   the   best    he 

could  and  carved  an  ivory  tooth  of  similar  shape  to 

the    lost    organ,    and    by   means   of    silk    ligatures 

fastened    it  to  the   adjoining   sound  ones."      Bone 

and   wooden  teeth  were  frequently  discovered  by 

Belzoni  in  his    researches    in    Egypt    some    years 

since. 

A  writer  in  one  of    our  early  dental    journals  f 

adds:  *'The  instruments  used,  appear  to  have  been 

clumsy  and  illy  fitted  to  the  delicate  labor  they  had 

to  perform.      Among  the  strange  frescoes  and  base 

reliefs  found  at  Thebes  and  also  at  Memphis,  are 

many  representing  the  daily  labors,  the  trades  and 

the  professions  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;   and  one 

of  these  portrays  a  dentist  operating  on  a  patient. 

Although  the  knowledge  of  dental  science  cannot 

be  considered  to  have  greatly  advanced  among  the 

Egyptians,  still  there  are  evidences  existing  which 

justify  us  in  giving  them  credit  for  a  greater  degree 

of  skill  than  we  suppose  could  have  existed  at  that 

early    period.      ^     "^^     ^     Some    of    the    mummies 

which  have  been  exhumed  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 

Egypt  have  presented  palpable  evidence  of  having 

*  Papyrus  Ebers  (1874).     Egyptian  Medical  Art— G.  M.  Ebers. 
tNew  York  Dental  Journal,  vol.  I.,  p.  6. 


38  THE.  RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

had  their  teeth  filled  with  gold  and  various  other 
substances.  W'e  do  not,  however,  think  that 
implicit  reliance  should  be  placed  upon  the  state- 
ment that,  because  these  bodies  were  found  with 
gold  and  aromatic  preparations  in  the  teeth,  it 
follows  that  filling  teeth  to  preserve  them  was  cus- 
tomary in  life. 

"The  object  of  the  Egpytians  in  embalming 
bodies  was  evidently  to  arrest  decay  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  preserve  the  existing  appearance  of  the 
corpse.  With  this  end  in  view  they  (the  Egpytians) 
would  naturally  use  particular  care  with  such  mem- 
bers of  the  body  as  had  already  commenced  to 
decay.  ^  This  appears  to  us  a  feasible  and  probable 
view  of  the  matter,  and  we  lean  toward  it  rather, 
that  none  of  the  other  medicinal  operations  of  the 
Egyptians  are  of  a  nature  to  induce  us  to  believe 
that  they  were  far  enough  advanced  in  science  to 
undertake  the  filling  of  the  teeth  during  the  vitality 
of  the  body.'  This  belief  does  not,  however,  pre- 
vent us  from  giving  them  their  due  credit,  for 
knowledge  of  the  chemical  properties  of  the  sub- 
stances they  used,  a  knowledge  which  in  perfection 
at  least  is  now  reckoned  among  the  lost  arts,  "t 

Whether  these  gold  fillings  were  inserted  prior 

*The  writer,  we  perceive,  was  of  the  belief  that  the  embalmer  and 
not  the  dentists  filled  the  teeth  with  g-old.  This  view  ma}-  be  rational 
but  we  are  at  a  loss  as  to  a  strong-  critique. 

tDental  Science  in  Earliest  Ages— New  York  Dental  Journal,  vol 
I.,  p.  4. 

Ibid,  vol.  II.,  pp  2  and  3. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  39 

or  subsequent  to  the  person's  death  seems  beyond 
the  judgement  of  present  humanity.  It  is  evident 
that  some  knowledge  of  gold  foil  was  extant  and 
that  Dental  Prosthesis  likewise  was  a  familiar  art. 
A  wTiter  in  a  recent  dental  journal  says:  "While 
it  is  true  that  unmistakable  traces  exist  in  the  lit- 
erature and  discoveries  in  Egypt  of  some  valuable 
observations  on  the  dental  system,  and  the  substi- 
tution of  artificial  teeth  for  the  absent  natural  ones, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  those  notions  and 
productions  must  of  necessity  have  been  largely  of 
an  empirical  and  rudimentary  character.  Indeed, 
it  were  a  curious  contradiction  to  our  established 
ideas  of  a  more  or  less  systematic  evolution  of  the 
different  sciences  to  assume  otherwise." 

The  museum  in  Liverpool,  England,  contains, 
besides  artifical  teeth,  * '  two  teeth  of  sycamore  wood 
set  in  gold."  Home  museums  and  collections  have 
many  specimens  of  "the  mode  of  fastening  by  liga- 
tures or  bands  of  gold  or  silver  wire  tying  the 
substitute  to  its  neighbor." 

It  appears  that  women,  too,  practiced  the  art  of 
medicine  and  dentistry  in  those  ancient  days,  since 
we  find  that  "Women,  being  forbidden  to  consult 
with  men,  received  services  from  their  own  sex."t 
At  the  present  time  there  are  scores  of  women 
dentists  practicing  dentistry  in  Egypt. 

*Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XV.,  p.  241. 
tCorrespondence  of  Dr.  Edward  Warren — 1874. 
Scientific  American— 1874. 


40  THE    RISE.   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

Egyptologists  are  still  at  work  deciphering  the 
ancient  written  rolls  of  papyri,  and  much  infor- 
mation remains  yet  to  be  derived;  the  explorations 
are  disclosing  many  interesting  archaeological  re- 
mains and  treasures  ;  the  large  museum  of  Egpytian 
antiquities  at  Boolak,  Egypt,  is  rapidh*  being  filled 
with  the  treasure-trove,  and  before  another  decade 
the  world  will  be,  through  the  medium  of  the  Egyp- 
tologist, more  definitely  informed  of  the  advanced 
civilization  of  the  "  ^Mother  of  Arts  and  Sciences."  - 


ADDITIONAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians 
— Wilkinson,  5  vols.,  1847;  History  of  Egypt  from 
the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Conquest  by  the  Arabs — 
Samuel  Birsch,  1846;  Medical  Papyri  of  Ancient 
Egypt — Birsch,  1871;  Ueber  die  Medizinischen 
Kenntnisse  der  Alten  Aegypter — Brugsch,  1853; 
Aegyptens  Stelle  in  der  Wellgeschichte — Bunson,  5 
vols.,  1845;  Ancient  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs — 
Kenrick,  2  vols.,  1850;  Handbuch  der  Gesammte 
Aegyptischen  Alterthumskunde — Uhlemann,  4  vols, 
1857;  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  1858;  Euterpe,  by 
Herodotus;  Zur  Aegyptischen  Forschung  Herod- 
ots — Buedinger,  1873;  Museum  of  Antiquity — 
Yaggy,   1885. 

*See  Appendix  for  additional  notes. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  4I 


HEBREW  DENTAL  ART. 


This  people  hardly  deserve  a  separate  chapter, 
as  most  of  their  knowledge  of  the  teeth  was 
borrowed,  but  since  they  left  testimony  of  their 
skill  it  may  be  justifiable  to  record.  The  ancient 
Hebrews  were  not  noted  for  having,  at  any  period  of 
their  existence,  displayed  any  great  amount  of 
mechanical  ingenuity  and  originality  in  the  arts 
and  sciences  and  can  not  with  good  authority  be 
accredited.  These  people  if  at  all  gifted  in  this 
direction  they  have  failed  to  leave  a  lasting  impres- 
sion. Language  and  law  were  perhaps  their  great 
triumphs.  In  order  to  learn  much  of  the  inner  or 
private  life  of  the  Hebrews  one  must  be  a  Talmud- 
ist,  for  in  the  great  Talmud  the  requisite  daily  life 
and  habitation  can  be  accurately  traced;  in  this 
standard  record  many  laws  concerning  the  natural 
and  artificial  teeth  can  be  found. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  too  well  knevv'  the  worth 
of  teeth,  and  the  great  King  Solomon  wisely  nick- 
named them  the  "millstones,"  and  were  by  his 
people  recognized  as  the  motive  power  of  life. 
Moses  legislated  his  famous  law  known  as  "tooth 
for  tooth,""  an  edict  which  was  altered  and  ex- 
plained in  the  Talmud  to   mean    a   fine  or  penalty. 

*Dentem  pro  dente— Exode,  cli.  XXIII. 


42  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

The  man  who  broke  the  tooth  of  his  fellow-man 
had  to  pay  the  unfortunate  a  sufficient  amount  of 
money^  for  damage  done,  or  have  the  substitute 
placed  at  the  cost  of  the  aggressor,  t 

So  highly  did  the  Hebrews  value  a  natural 
tooth  that  if  a  master  broke  the  tooth  of  a  slave 
the  latter  was  set  at  liberty  on  account  of  his  great 
misfortune.  ^losaic  law  in  this  respect  was  in 
force  long  after  the  Christian  era,  as  the  following 
from  Talmud  says:^  "Rabon  Gamliel,  who  was 
the  teacher  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  had  a  slave,  Tabi 
by  name,  and  as  he  was  anxious  to  set  him  at 
liberty  forever  he  broke  his  slave's  tooth  that  the 
latter  should  be  free,  and  the  Rabbi  was  so  happy 
the  day  of  his  slave's  liberation  that  he  gave  a 
banquet  to  his  friends,  besides  sending  his  slave 
off  with  a  present." 

The  Talmudical  Folk-lore  says:  "If  a  man 
dreams  that  his  false  teeth  have  fallen  out  it  is  a  bad 
omen  that  his  children  will  soon  die."  Indeed  the 
dental  profession  was  in  a  state  of  semi-cultivation 
under  the  care  of  the  learned  sages  of  the  Talmud, 
and  modern  dentists  would  be  astonished  to  learn 
that   the  art   of    replacing   false   teeth   for   natural 


♦•'That  a  fine  of  twelve  crowns  should  be  levied  against  any  person 
who  had  broken  the  tooth  of  his  neig-hbor."— Jewish  Law,  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. 

tThe  Youth's  Dentist— Dr.  J.  R.  Duval,  Baltimore,  1818,  p.  60. 
Jltems  of  Interest,  vol.  XIV.,  pp.  415,  416. 
Talmud  Babli. 
Dentistry  Among-  the  Hebrews— Xaphthali  Herz  Imber,  1892. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  43 

ones  was  practiced  among  the  Hebrews  more  than 
two  thousand  years  ago. 

Samuel,  the  dentist  who  lived  after  the  destruc- 
tion, was  the  house  physician  and  dentist  of  the 
famous  Rabbi  Jehuda,  the  Saint.  The  latter  was 
often  afflicted  with  toothache  but  was  cured  by 
Samuel.  What  drug  this  Rabbical  dentist  used  is 
unknown,  but  according  to  the  Talmudical  narra- 
tion it  must  have  been  chloroform  or  something 
with  similar  qualities,  since  the  Rabbi's  suffering 
was  stopped  by  the  use  of  inhalation  of  anaesthetic 
fumes. 

Among  the  Hebrews  it  was  strictly  forbidden 
by  law  to  carry  jewelry  or  precious  metals  or 
stones  on  the  Sabbath,  but  the  Talmud  wisely 
allowed  the  Jewish  women  "to  go  out  on  the  Sab- 
bath with  her  false  golden  or  silver  teeth."  Some 
Rabbis  allowed  their  people  to  wear  the  silver  false 
teeth  since  these  appeared  natural,  but  the  use  of 
golden  false  teeth  on  Sabbath  were  prohibited."^ 

An  authority  on  Hebrew  customs  and  cere- 
monies saysit 

"Among  the  orthodox  Jews,  especially  of  the 
large  cities  of  Europe,  where  the  Rabbis  are 
regarded  as  the  law  givers  of  Hebrew  communities, 
even  now  after  the  Ghetto  era,  none  will  submit  to 
a  dental  operation  unless  the  ingredients   used  by 


*Rabbianical  Code. 
tRev.  H.  J.  Sharp. 


44  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

the  operators  are  pronounced  by  their  spiritual 
advisers  as  'not  prohibited'  by  the  Rabbinical 
code  or  the  ceremonial  law.  Anything  obtained 
from  the  bodies  of  such  animals  as  swine,  hippo- 
tami,  oysters,  etc.,  would  be  positively  forbidden 
to  be  used  in  dentures  to  be  applied  to  Jewish 
patrons." 

In  later  times  the  artificial  teeth  were  made  of 
ivory  instead  of  wood,  and  this  statement  is  sub- 
stantiated by  the  curious  fact  that  the  Hebrew 
term  tooth  is  "shen,"  while  the  term  for  an  ele- 
phant is  "shenhob."  Now  it  is  highly  probable 
that  the  term  for  tooth  was  derived  from  the  word 
elephant,  as  they  used  the  latter's  white  tusks  in 
making  false  human  dentures. 

Hebrew  dental  art  is  so  intimately  interwoven 
with  the  Egpytian  that  aside  from  the  Talmudical 
obligations,  the  dental  art  was  practiced  and  under- 
stood by  Hebrews  and  Egyptians  alike. 


ADDITIONAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Talmudical  Commentary — Don.  I.  Abarbanel  ; 
Research  In  Antiquity — R.  Waller  ;  Critique  on  the 
Talmud — Perl  N.  Krochmal  ;  History  of  the  He- 
brews— Zunz  ;  Talmudicum  et  Rabbinicum — Bux- 
ton ;   Hebrew  Antiquities — Sully  ;   Geschichte  der 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  45 

Israels — Wellhausen  ;  History  of  the  Hebrew  Mon- 
archy— Newman  ;  Encyclopaedia  der  Classischen 
Alterthumswissenschaft — Pauly  ;  Egyptian  and  He- 
brew Antiquities — Young,  Bunsen,  Letronne  and 
Champollion  ;  Transaction  of  Society  of  Antiquities 
of  France  ;  Hebrew  Arts  and  Sciences — Dean  Stan- 
ey.^ 


For  additional  notes  see  appendix. 


46  THE    RISE,    FALL    AND    REVIVAL 


CHINESE  DENTAL  ART. 


The  Chinese,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  in 
ancient  days  a  persevering  people  and  made  won- 
derful advancements  in  the  arts  and  especially  in 
the  sciences.  In  medicine  and  surger)-  they  were 
considered  fairly  advanced.  One  of  the  ancient 
kings  of  China  instituted  a  free  medical  school 
for  those  citizens  who  were  inclined  to  study  medi- 
cine or  its  many  branches."^  Although  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  facts  and  figures  of  ancient  China 
it,  notwithstanding,  fortunately  happens  that  a 
Chinese  MSS.,  deposited  in  the  French  Academy 
of  Science,  gives  us  much  information  as  to 
Chinese  methods  of  dental  practice.  In  this  paper 
we  are  told,  among  other  things,  ''that  the  court 
dentists  ever  preserved  for  the  royalty  the  entire 
natural  denture  and  keep  the  same  'clean  and 
sweet.'  "  The  paper  further  states  "that  the  den- 
tist used  a  peculiar  pitch  of  a  white  appearance, 
and  this  was  used  to  restore  decayed  teeth." 

Of  animal  physiologyt  and  medicine  the  Chinese 
have  very  crude  notions,  as  is  shown  by  their 
various  ideas  of  the  human  body,  and  their  practice 


^^Encyclopaedia  Brttaunica,  vol.  I.,  7S'). 
tPeoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  427. 
American  C3-clopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  345. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  47 

of  medicine  and  surgery  must  of  necessity  be  em- 
pirical.^ 

The  practice  of  dentistry  in  China  is  doubtless 
very  ancient,  but  it  has  not  attained  that  perfec- 
tion which  characterizes  the  modern  art. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Chinese  attribute 
toothache  to  the  gnawing  of  worms,  and  that  their 
dentists  claim  they  take  these  worms  from  decayed 
teeth.  How  this  is  accomplished  is  as  follows: 
"When  a  patient  with  toothache  applies  for  relief, 
if  the  tooth  is  solid  in  the  socket,  the  gum  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  tooth  with  sharp  instruments  and 
made  to  bleed.  During  this  operation  the  cheek  is 
held  to  one  side  by  a  bamboo  spatula,  both  ends  of 
which  are  alike,  and  on  the  end  in  the  hand  some 
worms  are  concealed  under  thin  paper  pasted  to  the 
spatula,  the  paper  being  the  same  color  as  the  spa- 
tula. When  all  is  prepared  this  end  is  adroitly 
turned  and  put  into  the  mouth,  and  the  paper, 
becoming  moistened,  is  easily  torn  with  the  sharp 
instrument  used  for  cutting  the  gums,  gives  up  its 
worms,  which  mix  with  the  bloody  saliva,  and  the 
dentist  leisurely  picks  them  out  with  a  pair  of  for- 
ceps. The  patient  having  ocular  demonstration 
that  the  cause  of  his  disease  has  been  removed, 
has  good  reason  to  expect  relief,  which,  in  most 
cases,  would  be  the  result  from  the  bleeding  of  the 
gum  and  the  fright  of  the  patient. 


'Peoples'  Encjclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  427 


48  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

' '  When  the  toothache  returns,  as  it  will  in 
almost  every  case — perhaps  within  an  hour,  or 
maybe  not  for  one  or  two  days — the  patient  again 
seeks  his  dentist  for  relief,  and  the  same  operation 
is  performed,  finding  more  worms,  which  of  course 
explains  the  recurring  trouble,  and  this  is-  continued 
from  time  to  time  until  the  tooth  ceases  aching 
altogether  of  its  own  accord  from  the  natural  death 
of  the  pulp.  Another  fact  might  be  mentioned  : 
the  standard  medical  books  of  China  teach,  and 
have  taught  for  ages,  the  idea  of  worms  in  a  tooth 
causing  it  to  ache.  The  above  practice  is  resorted 
to  Vv'hen  the  tooth  is  firmly  set  in  the  jaw,  or  is  not 
so  loose  as  to  be  removed  with  the  fingers  or  by  a 
slight  force  or  pressure  with  iron  instruments. 

"The  insertion  of  artificial  teeth  has  been  prac- 
ticed in  China  for  ages  before  it  was  introduced  into 
Europe,  and  has  one  great  recommendation,  viz., 
cheapness.  The  material  used  is  bone  or  ivory, 
and  the  tooth,  having  been  sawed  and  filed  into  the 
proper  shape,  is  fastened  to  the  adjoining  teeth  by 
a  copper  wire  or  catgut  string.  If  two  or  more 
teeth  are  required,  they  are  made  in  one  piece,  and 
a  hole  drilled  the  whole  length,  through  which  a 
double  string  or  wire  is  passed,  which  loops  over 
the  natural  tooth  at  one  end  and  is  tied  to  the  tooth 
at  the  other.  This  work,  although  rude  in  the 
extreme,  is,  as  to  looks,  better  than  the  absence 
of  the  teeth,  and  is  of  some  use  in  mastication. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  49 

The  cost  of  a  single  tooth  will  be  from  five  to  ten 
cents,  and  the  charge  for  half  a  dozen  would  be 
from  thirty  cents  to  half  a  dollar.  At  these  low 
rates  all  classes  may  avail  themselves  of  the  benefit, 
and  those  who  practice  the  art  do  a  thriving  busi- 
ness."^ 

"The  Chinese  themselves  do  not  believe  in 
dissection,  and  there  is  no  body-snatching  here. 
They  believe  that  the  heart  is  the  seat  of  thought, 
that  the  soul  exists  in  the  liver,  and  that  the  gall 
bladder  is  the  seat  of  courage.  For  this  reason  the 
gall  bladders  of  tigers  are  eaten  by  soldiers  to  in- 
spire them  with  courage.  The  Chinese  doctor  or 
dentist  ranks  no  higher  than  the  ordinary  skilled 
workman.  He  gets  from  fifteen  to  twenty  cents  a 
visit,  and  he  often  takes  patients  on  condition  that 
he  will  cure  them  within  a  certain  time,  or  no  pay. 
He  never  sees  his  female  patients  except  behind  a 
screen,  and  he  does  not  pay  a  second  visit  unless  he 
is  invited.  His  pay  is  called  "  golden  thanks,"  and 
the  orthodox  way  of  sending  it  to  him  is  to  wrap  it  in 
red  paper.  The  dentists  look  upon  pulled  teeth  as 
trophies,  t  and  they  go  about  with  necklaces  of  de- 
cayed teeth  about  their  necks,  or  with  them  strung 
upon  strings  and  tied  to  sticks.  Toothache  is 
supposed   to  come  from  a  worm  in   the   tooth,  and 

*  Report  on  Chinese  Dentistry,  1877— Drs.  J.  G.  Kerr  and  G.  O.  Rogers. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XIX.,  p.  382. 

China  Review,  February,  1877. 
tDental  Review,  vol.  V.,  p.  360. 


50  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

there  is  a  set  of  female  doctors  \vho  make  a  business 
of  extracting  these  worms."  - 

Artificial  teeth  among  the  Chinese  of  medieval 
times  were  seldom  worn,  since  the  dental  surgeon 
not  only  seemed  skilled  enough  to  preserve  them, 
but  the  Chinese  were  known  to  be  the  possessors 
of  sound  teeth,  t  We  now  leave  the  superstitious 
Chinaman  and  wander  to  his  neighbor,  the  skillful 
and  dexterous  Japanese. 


ADDITIONAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


History  of  Chinese  ^Medical  Art — Creighton  ; 
History  of  Medicine  Among  the  Asiatic — Wise  ; 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  ;  Resume 
of  the  Chinese  Culture — Julien  ;  ^ledical  and  Surgi- 
cal Advancement  Amone  the  Chinese — ^ledhurst.t 


^Travels  of  Dr.  Frank  Carpenter. 
Dental  Advertiser,  toI.  XX.,  p.  131. 
fSt.  Louis  Dental  Quarterly,  vol.  1,  pp.  13,  1" 
+See  Appendix  for  additional  notes. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  5 1 


JAPANESE  DENTAL  ART. 


The  following  interesting-  account  from  one  " 
who  lives  among  the  Japanese  well  illustrates  the 
advancement  made  in  dentistry  : 

"It  is  a  little  remarkable  that  a  nation  which 
places  the  value  they  do  upon  their  teeth,  and  who 
take  the  care  that  is  everywhere  evident  of  their 
appearance  should  be  ignorant  of  everything  relat- 
ing- to  them,  other  than  their  mere  mechanical 
substitution. 

"Taken  as  a  race,  the  Japanese  have  not  good 
teeth,  neither  can  they  be  said  to  be  very  bad. 
Caries,  with  its  resulting  odontalgia,  is  quite  com- 
mon ;  but  the  most  frequent  cause  of  trouble  is  the 
accumulation  of  tartar.  To  such  an  extent  is  this 
true  that  it  constitutes  the  extracting  agent  of  the 
aged.  It  is,  indeed,  rare  to  find  an  elderly  person 
with  teeth.  As  might  be  expected,  the  principal 
accumulation  is  behind  the  lower  orals  ;  these  are 
frequently  entirely  cemented  together  by  a  dense, 
dark  brown  deposit,  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. But  far  more  dangerous  to  the  integrity  of 
the  organs  is  the  gradual  deposit  around  the  necks 
of  the  teeth  far  up  under  the  gums. 

*W.  St.  Georye  Elnott,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S., Yokohama,  Japan. 


52  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

"  It  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  peculiar 
land  that  among  the  females  one  seldom  meets  with 
beauty,  either  among  the  very  young  or  the  aged; 
in  both  cases  they  are  entirely  devoid  of  color,  but 
in  early  womanhood  it  is  not  rare,  nor  is  color 
wanting  to  lend  its  charm.  The  teeth  of  the 
musmies,  or  daughters  of  Japan,  are  objects  of 
envy,  but  the  horrible  custom  of  blacking  the  teeth 
after  marriage  destroys  what  little  beauty  time  had 
not  yet  stolen. 

"Irrep"ularities  are  common.  Their  teeth  bein^ 
large,  the  jaw  is  not  sufficiently  expanded  for  their 
proper  placement.  Considerable  care  is  taken  to 
have  the  teeth  appear  white,  the  native  brush  con- 
sisting of  tough  v\-ood,  pounded  at  one  end  to 
loosen  the  fibres,  when  it  resembles  a  paint  brush; 
it  is  used  with  several  kinds  of  powder,  red,  ash- 
color  and  white ;  they  are  all  of  a  coarse  structure,  but 
answer  the  purpose  very  well  with  the  soft,  wooden 
brush  employed.  Owing  to  its  shape,  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  the  brush  behind  the  teeth. 

"In  mechanical  dentistry  they  rank  far  above 
any  barbarian  or  semi-civilized  nation.  In  point 
of  fact,  I  believe  they  stand  alone.  Their  denture 
answers  admirably  the  principal  object  of  one,  i.e., 
the  mastication  of  food.  This,  however,  applies 
only  to  full  sets.  All  full  upper  cases  are  retained 
in  place  by  the  atmospheric  pressure.  This  princi- 
ple is  coeval  with  the  art.      The  oldest   inhabitant 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  53 

does  not  know  when  the  principle  was  introduced. 

''Owing  to  the  fact  that  dentistry  existed  only 
as  a  mechanical  trade,  the  status  of  those  who 
practice  it  is  not  high.  In  a  country  where  class 
distinctions  are  so  marked,  and  where  the  laws 
prescribe  the  dress  and  social  position  of  all,  it  is 
graded  with  carpenters,  which  fact  is  shown  b\' 
their  word,  '  hadyikfsan  '  (tooth  carpenter;.  Den- 
tistry, to  some  extent,  is  practiced  as  an  itinerant 
business.  The  carver,  taking  his  seat  beside  the 
highway,  exhibits  his  gilded  sign,  specimens  and 
material.  When  not  engaged  in  the  all  important 
business  of  gossiping  he  plies  his  chisel,  shapes  a 
denture,  or  grinds  on  a  slab,  a  bit  of  quartz  for  a 
tooth.  I  have  said  that  dentistry  does  not  give 
social  position,  neither  does  it  wealth.  In  full 
practice  a  dentist  may  get  tvro  or  three  cases  in  a 
month,  and,  for  some,  he  may  receive  as  high  as 
five  dollars;  but  that  is  a  price  far  above  the  ability 
of  the  majority  to  pa}*,  from  one  to  two  dollars 
being  the  usual  rate. 

"The  base  is  always  of  wood.  On  the  cheaper 
sorts  the  teeth  are  merely  outlined  upon  the  base, 
but  generally  they  consist  of  ivory,  shark's  teeth, 
or  stone,  let  into  the  wood,  and  retained  in  posi- 
tion by  being  strung  on  a  thread,  which  is  secured 
at  each  end  by  a  peg  driven  into  the  hole  where  it 
makes  its  exit  from  the  base. 

"Iron  or  copper  tacks  are  driven  into  the  ridge 


54  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

to  serve  for  masticating  purposes,  the  unequal  wear 
of  the  wood  and  metal  keeping  up  the  desired 
roughness  of  surface. 

"To  construct  a  full  upper  and  lower  denture 
requires  about  two  days'  constant  work.  Generally, 
however,  four  or  five  are  taken,  as  there  must  be 
time  allowed  for  the  usual  smokes  and  occasional 
naps  which  are  considered  so  necessary.  The 
ordinary  service  of  a  denture  is  about  five  years, 
but  they  frequently  last  much  longer.  The  writer 
has  one  in  his  possession  that  has  been  in  use 
fifteen  years,  and  is  still  quite  serviceable. 

"The  process  of  manufacture  is  crude  in  the 
extreme.  A  piece  of  wax  large  enough  to  cover 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  heated,  introduced,  and 
pushed  up  in  position  by  the  thumbs;  it  is  then 
removed  and  placed  in  cold  water  to  harden. 
Another  piece  of  wax,  large  enough  to  make  the 
model,  is  then  heated  and  applied  to  the  impres- 
sion, pressed  into  every  part  by  the  fingers,  then 
chilled  by  placing  in  cold  water,  and  separated.  A 
piece  of  wood  is  now  roughly  cut  to  the  desired 
form,  and  the  model,  having  been  smeared  over  with 
a  red  paint  ;'veni),  is  now  applied  to  the  plate;  where 
they  touch  each  other  is  marked  by  the  paint. 
This  is  then  cut  away  and  the  process  repeated 
until  the  plate  coats  uniformly;  it  is  then  tried  in 
the  mouth  and  any  necessary  corrections  made. 
They  do   not    seem   to  be  very  particular   to  get  a 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  55 

smooth  surface,  at  times  not  removing  the  tool 
marks. 

"Whether  or  not  these  upper  or  lower  den- 
tures can  be  worn  alone  I  do  not  know,  never 
having  seen  them  other  than  double;  nor  have  I 
seen  a  single  one  carved  to  antagonize  with  the 
natural. 

"As  the  teeth  are  not  natural  in  appearance, 
and  don't  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  wearer,  they 
are  never  used  for  purely  ornamental  purposes.  I 
will  except,  however,  those  partial  dentures  which 
are  fastened  to  the  adjoining  teeth  by  a  piece  of 
thread,  they  being  used  only  for  appearance  sake; 
from  the  mode  of  manufacture  there  is  no  reason 
why  one  denture  might  not  be  made  to  answer 
several  persons  in  succession."  ^ 

Some  few  years  ago  a  young  Japanese!'  came  to 
this  country  to  study  the  art  and  science  of  den- 
tistry. He  brought  with  him  an  example  of  the 
plate-work  of  his  own  people.  The  plate  was  a 
rim  of  hard  wood,  skillfully  carved,  in  which  were 
set  pointed  pegs  of  steel.  This  was  one  of  the 
sets  of  teeth  which  from  time  immemorial  the  den- 
tist of  this  nation  had  constructed  for  the  toothless, 
who  still  retained  an  appetite,  though  the  machin- 
ery for  its  indulgence  had  disappeared.  This 
curious  form  of    a    denture    was    used    merely  for 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XIV.,  pp.  5,  6,  7. 
tDemorest's  Family  Magazine,  vol.  XXIX.,  p.  82. 


56  THE    RISE,    FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

mastication  and  was  removed  and  scoured  as  soon 
as  the  meai  was  concluded. 

The  Japanese  are  a  very  dexterous  people,  and 
if  superstitions  could  be  eliminated  much  in  a 
mechanical  sense  might  be  expected. 

Among  them  superstition  cries  loudly — protest- 
ing at  all  attempts  at  frustrating  the  plans  of  Him 
who  takes  but  what  He  gives.  "It  were  wicked," 
they  claim,  "to  attempt  to  'restore'  v/hat  our  God 
has  taken  away.'"  Hence,  v.ith  this  belief  deeply 
imbedded,  Dental  Prosthesis  can  gain  no  strong 
foothold.  Prof.  \V.  E.  Grififis,  of  the  Imperial 
College  at  Tokio,  Japan,  says  :  "  The  Japanese  are 
admirable  workers  on  metal.  Iron,  copper  and  brass 
are  wrought  in  every  part  of  the  country,  and  the 
swords  of  Japan  have  long  been  famous.  The 
ornaments-  upon  their  hilts  and  handles,  made  of 
copper,  silver  or  gold,  with  inlaid  work  of  various 
metals,  are  not  only  curiosities  but  works  of  high 
art.  They  are  most  skillful  in  carving  wood  and 
metal  ;  their  lacquering  in  wood  excels  that  of  all 
other  nations.  "•■ 


^American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  IX..  p.  5^ 
Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XI..  p.  lOS. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  $7 


ADDITIONAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


The  Land  of  Art — Japan — M'Clachie  ;  Manners 
and  Customs  of  Japanese — Mrs.  Busk  ;  History  of 
Medicine  Among  the  Japanese — Wise  ;  Transac- 
tions of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  ;  Glimpse  at 
the  Art  of  Japanese — Jarves.  ^' 


*See  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


58  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


PHOENICIAN  DENTAL  ART. 


Ancient  Phoenicia,  bordering  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea,  was  particularly 
noted  for  its  two  great  cities,  Sidon  and  grand  Tyre, 
and  these  cities  in  turn  were  famous  for  their  man- 
ufacturers and  artists.  It  was  on  this  soil  that  King 
Solomon's  temple  stood,  the  grandest  structure  of 
antiquity.  It  was  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  mon- 
archy that  Phoenician  art  reached  its  highest  devel- 
opment, influencing  all  the  nations  around  her. 
With  Phoenician  art  and  science  the  modern  world 
has  been  little  acquainted  until  the  discoveries  made 
by  Gen.  de  Cesnola,*  the  results  of  which  are  in  the 
Cesnola  collection  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York  City.  For  three  years  this  eminent 
Italian  archaeological  explorer  employed  several 
hundred  men  to  excavate  the  ancient  Phoenician 
cities,  but  principally  Cyprus.  During  this  period 
upward  of  8,000  tombs  had  been  opened,  and  a 
magnificent  collection  of  antiquities  gathered.  It 
is  the  largest  archaeological  collection  in  the  world 
and  contains  some  13,000  articles,  mostly  of  precious 
metals.  The  Phoenicians,  we  learn,  adopted  from 
the  Egyptians  the  custom  of  depositing  their  dead 

*American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XIII.,  p.  779. 
Ibid,  vol.  IV.,  p.  215. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.,  Am.  Sap.,  vol.  II.,  p.  13S. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  59 

in  sarcophagi.*  The  oldest  examples  of  anthropoid 
stone  coffins  are  made  after  the  pattern  of  the 
Egyptian  mummy  cases.  Modern  excavations 
show  that  beside  stone  coffins,  the  Phoenicians 
employed  coffins  of  wood,  clay  and  lead,  to  which 
were  often  attached  metal  plates.  Embalming  also 
seemed  to  have  been  frequently  practiced  as  well 
as  covering  the  body  with  stucco.  Great  care  was 
bestowed  by  the  Phoenicians  on  their  burial  places, 
and  their  cemeteries  are  the  most  important  mon- 
uments left  to  the  post-civilization.  The  .tombs 
are  subterranean  chambers  of  the  most  varied  form. 
The  dead  were  deposited  either  on  the  floor  of  the 
chamber  in  the  sarcophagi,  or,  according  to  later 
custom,  in  niches.  The  mouths  of  the  tomb  were 
securely  walled  up  and  covered  carefully.  Thus 
safely  stored  away  from  time's  ravishing  elements, 
the  Phoenician  race  is  preserved  for  modern  research 
and  study.  Archaeological  societies  have  begun  in 
earnest  to  disclose  these  buried  treasures,  and  the 
dental  profession  already  have  received  several 
encouraging  mementoes. 

A  specimen  of  ancient  Phoenician  dentistry  is 
accurately  described  by  M.  Ernest  Renan,  in  his 
work  entitled  "Mission  de  Phoenicie  e  le  Cam- 
pangne  de  Sidon,"t  as  follows  : 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XVIII.,  p.  810. 

Anderson's  General  Historj-,  pp.  62,  63. 

Museum  of  Antiquit)-— Haines,  pp.  643,  911. 

McCabe's  Pictorial  History  of  the  World,  pp.  180,  181. 
tPage  of  the  vol.,  472. 


60  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

**But  that  which  was  most  interesting  was  the 
upper  portion  of  a  woman's  jaw  showing  the  two 
superior  cuspids  and  four  incisors,  united  by  gold 
thread.  Two  of  these  incisors  seemed  to  have  be- 
longed to  another  person,  and  to  have  been  placed 
there  in  order  to  replace  the  missing  one.  This 
piece,  which  was  found  in  one  of  the  most  ancient 
vaults,  proves  that  the  art  of  dentistry  was  pretty 
far  advanced  at  Sidon,  and  also  proves  that  the 
earth  scurvy  (scorbot  de  terre)  so  commonly  seen 
nowadays  in  Sidon  existed  already  in  those  ancient 
times."" 

This  piece  of  Phoenician  dentistry,  Dr.  Van 
Marter  informs  us,  can  be  seen  in  the  museum  of 
the  Louvre,  Paris.  There  are  scores  of  specimens 
of  Phoenician  dental  art  in  home  collections  and 
also  at  the  Columbian  World's  Fair. 

Dr.  Eames  t  assures  us  that  * '  One  of  the  earliest 
records  of  a  dental  operation  is  found  upon  a  Scyth- 
ian vase,  discovered  in  an  immense  tumulus  or 
buried  mound,  situated  about  four  miles  to  the 
westward  of  Kertch,  a  small  town  on  the  Crimean 
peninsula.  Historically  we  know  but  little  of  the 
Scythians,  beyond  the  meagre  facts  recorded  by 
Herodotus,  but  in  the  almost  numberless  tumuli 
which  are  found  upon  the  Crimean  coast  are  pre- 

♦Independent  Practitioner,  vol.,  VII.  pp.  58,  59. 

J.  G.  Van  Marter,  D,  D.  S.,  Rome,  1886. 
J^Scythian  Dental  Art— Dr.  W.  H.  Eames,  1886. 

Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VII.,  p.  290. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS^  6 1 

served  a  most  graphic  record  of  their  daily  lives, 
manners  and  customs,  in  the  funeral  vases  and 
other  objects  deposited  in  the  final  resting  places 
of  their  dead. 

"The  richest  of  the  numberless  tumuli  so  far 
opened  is  one  called  the  Koul-Oba,  which  was  ex- 
amined under  the  direction  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment, and,  although  the  greatest  care  was  taken  to 
preserve  the  precious  relics,  the  larger  parts  were 
stolen  and  never  recovered.  The  Koul-Oba  was 
a  royal  tomb,  and  in  a  spacious  apartment  con- 
structed of  large  blocks  of  stone  was  found  the 
mouldering  remains  of  the  king,  his  queen  or 
favorite  wife,  his  servants,  horses,  and  surrounded 
by  his  treasures.  Near  the  splendid  wooden  sar- 
cophagus of  the  king  were  the  remains  of  a  woman, 
doubtless  his  queen.  On  her  head  was  a  mitre- 
shaped  diadem,  and  at  her  feet  a  vase  of  electrum, 
upon  which  is  embossed  a  frieze  of  characteristic 
episodes  of  Scythian  life.  Upon  the  vase  are  four 
groups  in  exquisite  repousse  work,  giving  incidents 
in  their  life.  The  King  is  clad  in  a  Scythian  cos- 
tume, a  tunic  belted  at  the  waist,  and  full  trousers 
tucked  in  the  boots;  in  one  group  he  is  listening 
to  a  report  of  a  warrior  kneeling  before  him;  in 
another  he  is  bending  a  bow,  in  a  third  his  wounded 
leg  is  being  dressed,  and  the  last,  as  before  stated, 
is  one  of  the  earliest  known  representations  of  a 
dental   operation.      The  King   is.  half  sitting,  half 


62  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

kneelin;^,  and  the  Scvthian  dentist  is  extracting"  a 
tooth  from  the  left  side  of  the  jaw.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  this  represents  an  actual  inci- 
dent in  the  life  of  the  king  found  in  the  tomb,  for 
in  his  skull,  now  deposited  in  the  museum  at 
Kertch.  the  first  and  second  left  lower  molars  are 
missing  and  the  third  molar  is  badly  deca}-ed.  The 
presence  of  an  alveolar  abscess  connected  with 
these  lost  teeth,  at  some  period  of  life  is  shown  by 
the  condition  of  the  alveolar  process  in  this  region. 
"The  only  clue  to  the  identity  of  the  powerful 
monarch  here  entombed  is  an  inscription  of  three 
letters  upon  an  ornament,  in  which  it  is  claimed 
can  be  recognized  the  initials  of  a  Bosphorus  King, 
Pairisades,  who  reicrned  about  310  B.   C." 

CD  •-' 

The  vase,  of  which  Dr.  Eames  speaks,  was  no 
doubt  Phoenician  art,  for  it  was  about  at  this  same 
period,  310  B.  C.,that  Phoenician  pottery  -  claimed 
the  attention  of  the  then  ancient  world.  These 
people  were  wonderfulK-  skillful  in  ceramic  work 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  Scythian  King 
engaged  his  Phoenician  neighbor  to  create  the  vase 
and  other  earthen  figures  which  modern  research 
has  found  within  his  tomb. 

J.  H.  Middleton,  an  authorit}- on  pottery  says  :" 
*' Excavations    in    C}-prus,    Rhodes,    Thera,    Troy, 


♦American  Cyclopaedia.  vol.JXIII..  p.  779. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XIX.,  p.  C^S 
Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  III.,  p.  1413. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  63 

Attica  and  the  coast  of  Italy  have  revealed  the  ex- 
istence of  an  abundant  class  of  pottery  of  great 
antiquity,  a  large  part  of  which  in  its  forms  and 
decorations  appears  to  have  been  Phoenician."^  We 
learn  that  the  Scythians  t  were  not  familiar  with 
porcelain  and  clay  work,  and  this  account  further 
proves  that  the  vase  containing  the  portrayal  of  a 
dental  operation  was  of  Phoenician  origin. 


ADDITIONAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Ancients  and  Their  Teeth — Duval  ;  Historical 
Research  Into  the  Nations  of  Antiquity — Heeren  ; 
History  of  Civilization — Augsbury  ;  Phoenician 
Inscriptions  at  Cyprus — De  Vogue  ;  Die  Phoe- 
nizier — Movers  ;  History  of  the  Ancient  Orient — 
Maspero  ;  and  Phoenician  Arts  or  Mission  de  Phoe- 
nici — Renan.:|: 


*History  of  Pottery— Middletoii,  ISSO. 
tHerodotus,  vol.  IV.,  pp.  81,  97,  142. 

Hippocrates,  vol.,  II.,  pp.  66,  82. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XXI.,  p.  576. 

American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XIV.,  p.  726. 
tSee  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


64  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


ARABIAN  DENTAL  ART. 


The  rise  of  the  ]\Iohammedan  empire  which 
influenced  Europe  so  deeply,  both  politically  and 
intellectually,  made  its  m.ark  also  in  the  history  of 
medicine  and  surgery.  After  the  Arabian  conquest 
had  ceased  and  the  people  consolidated,  learning 
began  to  flourish  ;  schools  of  medicine,*  surgery  and 
pharmacy  were  established  often  in  connection  with 
hospitals  and  colleges,  much  after  the  fashion  of 
to-day. 

Although  the  Arab  thought  more  of  his  steed 
than  of  his  wife,  yet  he  did  not  fail  to  appreciate 
self  and  give  time  and  attention  to  the  "  pillars  of 
the  mouth,"  as  he  called  the  teeth.  Among  the 
archives  of  tradition,  in  Arabia,  we  are  informed 
that  the  augur  and  physician,  Navius  Aetius,t  as 
early  as  300  A.  D,,  discovered  the  foramina  in  the 
roots  through  which  the  nerves  and  vessels  enter 
the  pulp  chamber  ;  and  for  years  subsequent  to  this 
discovery  the  christian  world  was  ignorant  of  this 
and  other  of  his  important  finds. 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  S0£. 

Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  II.,  p.  1133. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XXII.,  p.  675. 

American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  348. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XII.,  p.  16<D. 
tDental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  3. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  I.,  p.  224. 


OF   DENTAL    TROSTHESIS.  6$ 

Arabians  never  cease  boasting  of  Aetius,  who, 
at  one  time,  was  a  professor*  and  tutor  in  the  medi- 
cal and  dental  departments  of  the  celebrated 
Alexandrian  University.  He  lived  in  the  fifth 
century  and  wrote  extensively  on  medicine,  surgery 
and  dentistry,  t  his  medical  writings  filling  some 
sixteen  volumes.  He,  it  is  claimed,  gave  the  first 
correct  anatomical  description  of  the  teeth  relative 
to  their  being  supplied  with  nerves  from  the  tri- 
facial ;t  and  he  also  recommended  the  filling  of  de- 
cayed teeth  with  resinous  substances,  such  as  wax 
galbanum.§  He  is  also  the  first,  as  far  as  historical 
records  lend  assistance,  to  advocate  the  use  of  the 
file  in  dental  operations.  His  advice  to  file  the 
teeth  freely  to  remedy  their  irregularity,  was,  how- 
ever, founded  in  error,  and  would  not  meet  with 
much  favor  among  the  skillful  modern  dentists. 

Another  Arabian  surgeon,  Albacasisjl  byname, 
was  recognized  to  be  a  great  and  preeminent  "car- 
ver of  human  teeth."  This  famous  doctor  lived 
about  1 100  A.  D.,  and  he  suggested  means  for  re- 
placing lost  dental  organs  by  substituting  extracted 
natural  ones  ;  he  also  produced  many  dentures  of 
bone  and  ivory. 

The  Arabs  generally  were  very  proud  of  their 

*Dental  Cosmos,  toI.  X.,  pp.  346  and  349. 

tProfessional  Etching-s— Dr.  King-sbuo",  1868,  p.  2. 

JDental  Cosmos,  vol.  X.,  p.  346. 

§Ibid. 

IIDental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  3. 


66  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

teeth  and  among  them  the  toothpick  was  a  pocket 
friend.  The  toothpicks  were  made  of  mastic  wood 
and  they  used  them  in  preference  to  quills  ;  hence 
Rabelais  says  that  "Prince  Gargantua,  like  the 
Arabians,  picks  his  teeth  with  mastic-wood  tooth 
pickers.""^ 

They  fully  believe  in  their  ancient  Arabian 
adage:  "He  who  does  not  masticate  well  is  an 
enemy  to  his  own  life."t 

Dr.  J.  R.  Duval,  in  writing  of  the  care  which 
Arabians  give  their  teeth,  says:  "The  custom  of 
washing  the  mouth  every  morning,  which  is 
adopted  by  several  nations,  has  become  the  sub- 
ject of  a  religious  precept  among  the  Arabians  to 
make  the  little  ablution,  "t  says  Turnefort,  "with 
the  face  turned  toward  Mecca,  they  rinse  the 
mouth  thrice  and  clean  their  teeth  with  a  brush." 
This  custom  shows  how  highly  the  preservation  of 
the  teeth  is  esteemed  by  a  people  who  formerly 
were  forbidden,  according  to  Menavius,  "to  have 
a  tooth  extracted  without  permission  from  the 
chief.  "§ 

In  a  recent  number  of  the  Harper's  we  read 
that  a  traveler  who  had  visited  and  acquainted 
himself  with  the  fleet  Arabians,  says:  "If  you  are 
ever  intending  to  visit  the  land  of  the  'ship  of  the 

♦Readers'  Handbook— Brewer,  p.  1017. 
tYouth's  Dentist— Duval,  p.  13. 
iVoyag-es  to  the  Levants— Turnefort. 
SYouth's  Dentist— Duval,  p.  46. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS,  ^J 

sand'  do  not  fail  to  comment  the  Arabian  on  his 
grand  steed  and  pearly  teeth  ;  these  are  the  two 
things  that  are  cherished  in  his  heart." 

But  notwithstanding  that  the  Arab  never  neg- 
lected his  teeth  or  steed,  we  find  that  some  of  his 
good  people  wore  artificial  dentures  ;  at  any  rate 
an  Arabian  general  under  Mohammed  of  Ghor,  and 
conqueror  of  India,  was  slain  and  his  body  could 
only  be  identified  by  means  of  the  false  teeth  he 
wore,  and  held  in  place  by  gold  wedges  and  wire.* 

Arabians  are  not  noted  for  their  superstitious 
beliefs,  yet  they,  like  most  of  the  ancient  peoples, 
have  strange  ideas  and  conceptions  relative  to  in- 
fluences on  humanity.  If,  in  the  event  of  battle,  a 
soldier  lose  a  tooth  or  teeth,  he  is  not,  according 
to  the  Koran,  permitted  to  wear  in  their  stead 
artificial  substitutes,  since  the  great  law  distinctl}- 
states  ''That  he  who  fought  for  his  country  must 
fight  even  to  the  losing  of  his  teeth,  "t 

The  great  African  explorer,  Paul  B.  DuChaillu, 
states  that  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia  can  be  seen 
people  with  the  incisor  teeth  of  both  jaws  filled  to 
a  sharp  point  in  order  to  give  a  stern  and  savage 
aspect  to  the  countenance,  and  also  lend,  as  they 
claim,  additional  "beauty  to  the  expression."    The 


♦Johnston's  Dental  MisceUany,  vol.  VIII.,  pp.  80,81. 

Rise  and  Fall  of  Mohammedan  Power  In  India— Brig-gs, 
tDental  Cosmos,  vol.  X.,  p.  17. 

Professional  Etching-s--Kingsbur3-,  1S6S. 


68  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL  - 

explorer  adds  that  "No  female  was  entitled  to 
marked  consideration,  or  be  known  as  a  belle, 
without  this  peculiarity  of  the  dental  organs."* 

Rhazes,  and  also  Ebu  Sina,  both  Arabian  medi- 
cal men,  made  use  of  white  arsenic  to  devitalize 
the  pulps  of  badly  decayed  teeth.  The  only  aim 
seems  to  have  been  to  produce  a  painless  decay  of 
the  tooth. 

The  great,  historian,  Wuestenfeld,  tells  us  that 
upwards  of  three  hundred  Arabian  physicians  have 
left  voluminous  writings  in  Arabic,  and  not  more 
than  four  works  of  this  number  have  been  trans- 
lated, and  these  few  exist  in  the  Latin  only.t  Thus 
the  great  remainder,  still  in  the  form  of  Arabic 
manuscript,  can  lend  us  no  aid  in  determining  the 
exact  status  of  the  medical  profession.  "But  it  is 
improbable,"  says  Dr.  J.  F.  Payne,  "that  further 
research  will  alter  the  general  estimate  of  the  value 
of  Arabian  medicine.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  was  in  the  main  Grecian  medicine  modified  to 
suit  the  climates,  habits  and  national  tastes,  and 
with  some  important  additions  from  oriental  sour- 
ces. The  Grecian  part  is  taken  from  Hippocrates, 
Galen,  Discorides  and  later  Greek  writers.  "J  This 
being  the  case  v/e  can  indirectly  get  a  fair  idea  of 


*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  X.,  p.  346. 
Youth's  Dentist— Duval,  p.  41. 
tHistory  of  Medicine— Payne. 
^Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  806. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  69 

Arabian  dental   progress   by  studying   the  Grecian 
dental  art. 


ADDITIONAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


History  of  Arabian  Medicine — Leclerc  ;  The 
Medicine — Celsus  ;  History  of  Medicine — Aegi- 
neta  ;  Mechanical  Inventions  by  Arabs — Palgrave  ; 
Arabian  Philosophy,  Etc. — Wallace  ;  History  of 
Progress  Among  the  Arabs — Palgrave.  ^ 


•^See  Appendix  fur  additional  notes. 


70  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


GRECIAN  DENTAL  ART. 


"The  Greeks,"  it  is  said,  "learned  what  the 
Egyptian's  knew,"  and  no  doubt  the  science  of 
dental  surgery  emigrated  from  Egypt  to  Greece  as 
did  nearly  all  knowledge.  The  Greeks,  who  were 
at  one  time  a  very  dexterous  and  progressive  race, 
were  skilled  in  all  arts  and  science,"^  and  to  their 
ancient  historians  and  bards  belong  much  credit 
for  having  noted  the  then  present  state  of  Dental 
Prosthesis,  not  only  in  the  land  of  the  Greeks  but 
the  land  of  man. 

Homer,  the  great  Greek  sage  and  historian, 
tells  us  that  yEsculapius,  a  surgeon  who  lived  about 
1250  B.  C.,  used  a  narcotic  to  produce  insensibility 
when  performing  minor  operations  such  as  tooth 
drawing.  He,  too,  we  are  informed,  was  the  first 
to  teach  the  art  of  tooth  purging  and  filling. 
yEsculapius  performed  many  wonderful  operations 
and  his  skill,  it  is  claimed,  enabled  him  to  cure  the 
most  desperate  diseases.  He  was  thought  of  so 
highly  by  the  Greeks  that  a  statue  of  him  was 
made  in  gold,  and  after  his  death  was  called  the 
"god  of  medicine." 

*An.v  Unabridg-ed  Encj-clopaedia. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  71 

But  yEscualpius*  is  not  now  recognized  as  the 
father  of  medical  science,  but  only  of  medical  prac- 
tice— a  distinction  with  a  difference.  Under  his 
reign  diseases  were  conceived  to  be  '^emanations 
from  the  anger  of  the  gods,"  and  cure  was  to  be 
effected  largely  by  their  propitiation.  A  strict 
regimen  was  rigorously  inculcated  ;  the  temples 
were  situated  in  salubrious  places,  and  all  that  art 
could  do  toward  stimulating  the  imagination  of  the 
patient  was  accomplished  ;  but  the  more  careful 
study  of  the  symptoms  and  causes  of  disease  was 
unknown.  Many  changes  in  medical  practice  have 
taken  place  since  then,  but  it  is  not  certain  that 
these  changes  represents  improvements.  There 
is,  indeed,  abundant  reason  for  asserting  that  the 
hygienic  injunctions  of  Ancient  Greece  were  more 
nearly  in  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  nature 
than  those  of  our  present  medical  professors,  t 

"The  greatest  surgeon  that  ever  lived,"  says 
Herodotus,  "was  Hippocrates,  who  lived  about 
450  B.  C.  This  genius  was  a  distant  relative  of 
yEsculapius,  and  like  this  great  surgeon  was  divinely 
skilled  in  the  practice  of  medicine  and   surgery." 

♦American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  152- 

Enc3-clopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  I.,  p.  209. 

Peoples'  EncA'clopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  34. 

Zell's  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  33. 
tDental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2. 

Is  Medicine  a  Science — Walker,  1886. 

Phrenological  Journal,  vol.  XXXIII.,  p.  285. 

Encyclopaedias  mentioned  in  the  precedinfj  note. 

Dental  Mirror,  vol.  I.,  p.  69. 

Dental  and  Surt^ical  Microcosm,  vol.  II.,  p.  2. 


72  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

At  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Hippocrates  -  medi- 
cine and  surgery  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
heathen  priesthood,  who  knew  little  of  medicine  as 
a  science,  and  so  thoroughly  clothed  the  subject 
with  superstition  and  mysteries  that  future  gener- 
ations still  suffer  the  effect.  Every  minute  oper- 
ation which  these  priests  performed  was  accom- 
panied by  some  special  religious  ceremonies. 
Temples  were  erected,  and  within  their  walls 
mythological  figures  stationed,  each  and  every  god 
or  goddess  being  recognized  as  the  divine  guard 
against  some  disease,  accident,  pain  or  ailment. 
These  priests  t  who  had  these  several  temples 
reaped  at  their  doors  unknown  harvest  of  riches  ; 
since  if  some  poor  unfortunate  plebian  suffered 
from  toothache  or  other  malady  he  would,  by  pay- 
ment of  toll  or  tariff,  be  permitted  to  enter  the 
temple  and  there  at  the  feet  of  the  specially  cre- 
ated god  or  goddess  patiently  pray  until  the  pain 
subsided  ;  if  it  happened  to  continue  for  more  than 
a  day  the  wretched  sufferers  would  return  to  the 
temple  the  next  day  with  less  money,  less  hope 
and  more  pain. 

^American  C^vclopaedia,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  740. 

EnQ'clopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XI.,  p.  852. 

Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  II.,  p.  907; 

Zell's  Enc^-clopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  1148. 
tDental  Review,  vol.  III.,  pp.  429,  430,  431. 

First  Period  in  History  of  Dentistry— Patrick,  1889. 

History-  of  Medicine — Payne,  p.  3. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  pp.  799-805. 

American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  pp.  345,  346,  347. 

Past,  Present  and  Future  of  Anaesthesia--3.  J.  Cig-rand,  1890. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  73 

But,  alas,  these  shrewd  monks  soon  lost  the 
substantial  portion  of  their  income  when  the  young 
Hippocrates  grew  up  "learned  in  all  the  wisdom 
of  medical  science  and  surgical  art."  Although 
himself  the  son  of  a  priest-physician  ^  and  inheriting 
all  the  superstition,  and  educated  in  the  traditions 
of  the  priestly  rites,  he  broke  loose  from  former 
teachings  and  proclaimed  to  all  the  civilized  world 

that  medicine  was  based  on   inductive  philosophy, 

•i 

and  disclosed  at  the  risk  of  his  life  that  the  priestly 
system  was  a  fraud  and  an  imposition.  He  it  was 
who  first  t  undertook  to  collect  the  fragmentary 
knowledge  of  medicine  and  restore  it  to  something 
of  an  order.  He  classified  and  described  diseases, 
and  with  him  medicine  and  surgery  began  their 
careers  as  sciences.  All  that  is  known  concerning 
early  history  of  medicine  and  surgery  is  derived 
from  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  his  family  or  his 
pupils.  When  we  consider  the  age  in  which  he 
lived — 400  B.  C. — and  the  difficulties  under  which 
he  studied  medicine,  we  can  not  fail  to  admire  the 
great  advance  he  made.  His  system  is  conspicu- 
ous in  rejecting  the  superstitions  of  his  time  by 
teaching  his  many  disciples  to  impute  a  proper 
agency  to  physical  cause.  It  was  to  the  interest 
of  those  connected  with  the  temples  to  refer  all 
diseases  to  supernatural  agencies,  and  any  contra- 

*Any  Unabridged  Encyclopaedia. 

tEncyclopaedic  references  on  Hippocrates  as  already  given. 


74  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

diction  of  such  doctrine  by  Hippocrates  must  have 
met  with  great  reprehension.  Yet  the  opposition 
seemed  to  weigh  but  little  with  this  great  and 
talented  physician.  He  pursued  his  practice  with- 
out giving  himself  the  least  concern  in  that  respect, 
and  in  doing  so  set  an  example  to  all  who  should 
succeed  him  in  his  noble  profession,  and  most 
forcibly  taught  his  pupils  not  to  hesitate  in  en- 
countering the  prejudices  and  superstitions  of  the 
present,  for  the  sake  of  truth  in  the  future. 

We,  as  dentists,  should  reverence  the  memory 
of  Hippocrates  for  the  complete  manner  in  which 
he  accomplished  his  object.  While  Hippocrates 
investigated  all  branches  of  medicine,  the  diseases 
of  the  mouth  and  teeth  did  not  escape  his  notice. 
He  observed  the  teeth  ^  in  their  healthy  and 
diseased  condition  from  the  time  of  their  appear- 
ance until  lost  in  old  age.  Some  of  his  quotations 
are  as  follows:  "Teeth  in  similar  conditions  will 
erupt  with  less  difficulty  in  winter  than  at  any 
other  period  ;  that  children  who  sleep  well  have 
little  difificulty  in  erupting  their  teeth  ;  that  teeth- 
ing children  with  open  bowels  are  less  subject  to 
convulsions  than  those  suffering  from  constipation." 
He  directed  the  attention  to  the  influences  ''that 
diseased  teeth  have  in  diseases  of  the  breast,  throat 
and  ears,  which  diseases  he   claimed   could  onl}-  be 

*He  wrote  on  the  teeth  in  400  B.  C. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  75 

cured  by  removing  the  troubling  teeth."*  He 
further  remarked:  *'Cold  drinks  affect  and  injure 
the  teeth  ;  different  seasons  of  the  year  have  their 
various  influences  on  the  dental  organs  ;  ulceration 
and  suppuration  of  the  gums  can  be  prevented  if 
proper  care  be  given  the  teeth;  loose  teeth"  he 
advises  to  be  "tied  to  their  neighbors  by  means  of 
gold  or  silk  thread  ;  cleansing  the  teeth  Is  a  pre- 
cautionary measure  against  decay ;  avoid  eating 
hard  substances,  thus  not  break  or  crack  the  teeth  ; 
substances  that  set  the  teeth  on  edge  are  injurious." 
In  one  of  his  note  books  occurs  this  observation: 
"In  consequence  of  a  diseased  tooth  the  maxillary 
bone  of  the  son  of  Metrodorous  became  disorgan- 
ized, the  gums  grew  exuberantly,  but  the  suppura- 
tion was  moderate.  He  lost  the  molars  and  the 
maxillary  bone."t 

Those  who  studied  general  or  dental  surgery 
under  Hippocrates  were  obliged  to  subscribe  to 
what  is  known  as  the  Hippocratic  oath,  J  which 
was  as  follows:  "I  swear  by  AppoUo,  the  physi- 
cian, by  i^isculapius,  by  Hygeia  and  Panaca,  and 
by  all  the  gods  and  goddesses,  that  to  the  best  of 
my  power   and   judgment  I   will   faithfully  observe 


*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.  670. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science — Dexter,  p.  2. 

Works  of  Hippocrates. 

Youth's  Dentist— Duval,  p.  3, 
tDental  Review,  vol.  III.,  pp.  433,  434,  435. 

First  Period  in  Histor3-  of  Dentistry— Patrick,  1S89. 
^Archives  of  Dentistrj-,  vol.  I.,  p.  379. 


70  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

this  oath  and  obligation.  The  mister  who  has  in- 
structed me  in  this  art  I  will  esteem  as  my  parents, 
and  supply,  as  occasion  may  require,  with  the  com- 
forts and  necessaries  of  life.  His  children  I  will 
regard  as  my  own  brothers,  and  if  they  desire  to 
learn  I  will  instruct  them  in  the  same  art  without 
any  reward  or  obligation.  The  precepts,  the 
explanations,  and  whatever  else  belongs  to  the  art, 
I  will  communicate  to  my  own  children,  to  the 
children  of  my  master,  to  such  other  pupils  as  have 
subscribed  to  the  physician's  and  surgeon's  oath, 
and  to  no  other  persons.  My  patients  shall  be 
treated  to  the  best  of  my  power  and  judgment,  in 
the  most  salutary  manner,  without  any  injury  or 
violence  ;  neither  will  I  be  prevailed  upon  by 
another  to  administer  pernicious  physics." 

After  the  death  of  Hippocrates  the  science  of 
medicine  and  surgery  took  a  retrograde  step  and. 
again  fell  to  the  hands  of  the  pagan  priests,  who 
made  use  of  the  discoveries  of  Hippocrates  to  fur- 
ther the  confidence  that  divine  power  was  invested 
in  the  priesthood. 

"Such  was  the  condition  of  medical  observa- 
tion in  the  then  enlightened  Greece,"  says  Dung- 
linson,  "confined  to  the  priesthood,  and  full  of 
mystery  to  the  uninitiated  ;  but  leading  to  a  know- 

*Works  of  Hippocrates. 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  vol.  I.,  p.  379. 
tis  Medicine  a  Science— Walker. 

Phrenological  Journal,  vol.  XXXIII.,  N.  S.,  p.  284. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  T7 

ledge  of  numeroijs  remedial  agencies,  such  as  helle- 
bore, opium,  squill,  blood-letting,  etc.,"  and 
* 'where  sensible  agencies  failed,  recourse  was  had 
to  charms,  incantations  and  amulets,  suggested  by- 
ignorance  and  superstition  among  the  rude  and 
barbarous  nations  of  the  present  day  almost  as 
extensively,  and  confided  in  as  implicitly  as  in  the 
cradle  of  mankind.  If  the  patient  died  the  event 
was  ascribed  to  the  will  of  the  gods  ;  if  he  recov- 
ered— by  virtue  of  those  instinctive  powers  which 
are  seated  in  every  organized  body,  and  without 
which  the  efforts  of  the  physician  would  be  vain — 
a  case  of  cure  was  recorded,  but  no  inquiry  was 
made  as  to  the  precise  agency  exerted.  To  the 
charm,  the  incantation,  the  amulet  was  ascribed 
the  whole  result.  Tradition  handed  down  a  know- 
ledge of  its  presumed  efficacy,  and  led  to  its 
employment  in  similar  cases." 

The  century  after  the  death  of  Hippocrates  is 
a  time  almost  blank  in  medical  science.  Though 
none  of  Aristotle's  writings  are  strictly  medical, 
his  researches  in  anatomy  and  physiology  con- 
tribute greatly  to  the  progress  of  medicine  and 
surgery.*  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  he 
was  of  the  yEsculapae  family  and  received  that 
patriotic  medical  education  which  was  traditional 
in  such  families  ;  though  having  practiced  medicine 

♦Book  of  Problems— Aristotle,  p.  229. 
American  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  346. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  II.,  p.  518. 


yS  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

and  surgery  but  a  short  period,  his  observations 
were  numerous.  It  is  probable  that  medical 
science,*  like  others,  shared  in  the  general  intel- 
lectual decline  of  Greece  after  the  Macedonian 
supremacy.  But  Grecian  sciences  were  revived 
and  the  intellectual  activity  restored  by  the  con- 
quests of  Alexander  the  Great.  More  than  one 
learned  center,  in  which  medicine  and  surgery, 
among  other  sciences,  was  represented,  was  insti- 
tuted. Pergamusfwas  early  distinguished  for  its 
medical  schools,  but  in  this,  as  in  many  other 
respects,  its  reputation  was  ultimately  effaced  by 
the  more  brilliant  fame  of  Alexandria,  where 
Greeks  taught  and  learned.  Here  the  eminent 
Grecian  surgeons,  HerophilusJ  and  Erasistratus, 
practiced  and  thus  taught  the  world  the  art  and 
science  of  medicine.  It  was  Erasistratus  §  who 
gave  his  particular  attention  to  the  dental  organs, 
and  there  is  good  grounds  to  believe  that  he  was 
an  instructor  in  the  dental  department  of  the  Alex- 
andrian University.  If  we  can  place  reliance  in 
the  words  of  the  Greek  philosopher,  Aristotle,  we 
must  believe  that  it  was  Erasistratus  who  deposited 

*The  Medical  Schools  of  Ancient  Greece  were:  Cnidos,  Cos,  Rhodes 
Gyrene,  Croton  and  Perg-amus. 

tAmerican  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  XIII.,  p.  291. 

Enc3-clopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XVIII.,  p.  527. 

Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  II.,  p.  1352. 
+Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2. 

Any  Unabridged  Encyclopaedia. 
§Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  801. 

Peoples'  Encyclopaedia,vol.  I.,  p.  661. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  79 

a  pair  of  leaden  forceps  in  the  Temple  of  Delphi. 
The  leaden  instrument  bore  the  Greek  name 
"Odontagogos,"*  meaning  "tooth-extractor." 

Upon  the  death  of  this  great  surgeon,  and  also 
on  the  destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library,  the 
medical  art  retrograded,  and  to  this  day  Greece 
has  not  recovered  from  the  shock. 

The  Greek  writer,  Cicero,  gives  credit  to  the 
third  son  of  ^sculapiusf  for  the  invention  of  an 
instrument  for  the  extraction  of  diseased  teeth.  It 
is  further  claimed  that  these  ancients  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  healing  dental  caries  by 
plugging  the  cavity  with  gold  foil,  and  that  the 
British  museum  contains  skulls  taken  from  Greek 
tombs,  and  the  teeth  of  these  aged  remains  are 
unmistakably  filled  with  gold  foil. 

In  a  museum  at  Athens,  in  an  upper  jaw  of  an 
ancient  cranium,  a  tooth  filled  with  pure  gold  foil  J 
can  be  seen.  The  skulh  was  found  in  one  of  the 
tombs  which  date  from  the  days  of  ancient  Greece. 
From  this  it  will  appear  that  these  ancient  people, 
too,  were  familiar  with  gold  work. 

Dr.    Xavier    Landerer,    of    Athens,    sends    the 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  VIII,,  p.  670. 

Works  of  C.  Aurelias— Medicine. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2- 
rDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.:670. 

Vierteljahrsschrift  des  Vereins  deutcher  Zahnkueustler,  1881. 
+Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  pp.  109,  110. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  607. 

British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  March,  1867.' 

Some  Remarks  On  the  Prevalence  of  Dental  Caries  Amongr  the 
Ancients— James  Bate,  1867 


80  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

following  to  the  London  Chemist  and  Druggist: 
''It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  the  ancients  cer- 
tainly cleaned  their  teeth  and  used  tooth-powder. 
If  the  necessary  attention  were  given,  relics  would 
be  found  in  the  graves  of  the  women.  The  word 
'odontotrimma,'  the  tooth-scouring  stuf?  or  tooth- 
powder,  is  found  in  ancient  Greek,  and  in  the 
Greek  Pharmacopoeia  is  applied  to  tooth-powder. 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  ancients  had  made 
some  advance  in  dentistry.  A  friend  of  mine 
who  occupied  himself  in  collecting  ancient  Hellenic 
skulls,  wishing  to  show  that  they  did  not  differ  in 
shape  from  those  now  carried  in  Greece.  Among 
several  hundred  of  these  skulls,  some  perhaps  two 
thousand  years  old,  we  found  two  with  'stopped' 
teeth.  One  was  filled  with  a  mass  as  hard  as 
stone,  which,  on  analysis,  proved  to  be  hydraulic 
lime,  made  from  volcanic  ash,  Santorin  earth  and 
lime.  Marvelous  as  it  may  seem,  the  hollow  of 
one  tooth  in  the  other  skull  had  been  filled  with 
gold  thread  or  gold-leaf.  The  metal  used  was 
pure.  The  skull  itself,  though  deprived  of  the 
stopping,  is  now  in  the  Archaeological  museum." 

The  following  brief  quotation  from  a  dental 
journal  also  portrays  a  few  dental  items i"*^ 

"The  Greeks  t  appear   to   have   been   the   first 

*Dental  Cosmos. 

The  Pharmacist— 1881. 
tNew  York  Dental  Journal,  vol.  II.,  p,  2. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  8 1 

who  made  any  distinct  progress  in  theoretical 
dentistry,  although  in  many  principles  were  wrong 
and  their  practice  cruel  and  unnecessary,  it  was 
still  something  to  find  dentistry  reduced  to  what 
at  least  approximated  to  a  science.  They 
seldom  extracted  a  tooth  except  with  the  fingers. 
We  also  learn  from  Galen  that  various  composi- 
tions existed  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for 
cleansing  the  teeth  similar  to  our  own  modern 
dentifrices.  Thus  Andromache,  Aristocrates, 
Crito  and  Diocletian  were  noted  as  amateur  manu- 
facturers of  tooth-powder." 

In  the  works  of  the  renowned  archaeologist, 
Belozoni,  we  read  that  "the  Greeks  wore  false  teeth 
of  sycamore  wood  which  had  been  fastened  to  the 
adjoining  natural  ones  by  ligatures  of  gold  or 
silver  ;  and  that  many  of  the  decayed  natural  ones 
were  filled  with  a  clay-like  substance  which  became 
remarkably  hard  and  durable." 

The  dead  were  either  burned  or  buried,  and 
in  the  latter  case  graves,  vaults  and  tombs  were 
used  for  the  final  deposition  of  the  body.*  For  the 
burning  of  the  body,  piles  of  wood,  called  purae, 
were  used,  and  oils  and  perfumes  were  thrown  into 
the  flames.      When  the  pyre  had  burned  down,  the 


♦The  tenth  of  the   celebrated   Greek  Laws  of   the   Twelve   Tables 
(relating  to  funeral  ceremonies)  has,  among-  others,  this  direction:  "Let 
no  g-old  be  used,  but  if  any  one  has  his  teeth  fastened  with  gold,  let  it  b 
lawful  to  burj'  or  burn  that  gold  with  the  body." 

Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2. 


82  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

remains  were  extinguished  with  wine,  and  the 
bones  were  collected,  washed  with  oil  and  wine, 
and  placed  in  clay  boxes  or  an  urn.  The  male- 
factors, traitors,  and  all  other  disqualified  citizens 
were  denied  burial,  which  was  considered  the  high- 
est possible  dishonor.  \'ery  few  of  their  distin- 
guished dead  were  embalmed  ;  the  greater  majority 
were  consigned  to  the  urn.  Thus  the  Grecian 
custom  of  cremating*  the  dead  has  caused  the 
scarcity  of  dental  specimens.  What  proof  we  do 
have  of  their  knowledge  of  Dental  Prosthesis  is 
found  in  the  literature  of  these  people.  What  has 
been  said  of  the  accomplishments  of  the  Egyptians 
relative  to  the  art  and  science  of  dentistry  is  quite 
applicable  to  the  Grecians  who  were  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  attainments  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  modeled  their  customs  and  habits  much  after 
their  ancient  neighbors,  t 

How  far  this  people  in  their  wonderful  civiliza- 
tion advanced  in  the  art  of  dentistry:!:  we  may  never 
know,  but  from  the  same  authority  we  are  led  to 
believe  that  the  men  who  practiced  this  branch  of 
the  healing  art  were  of  equal  education  and  polish 
with  those  found  in  the  other  branches  of  medicine; 

♦Civilization  among-  the  Greeks— Mrs.   Dorman  Steel,  p.  33. 

Brief  History  of  Greece — Barnes,  pp.  78,  79. 

American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  III.,  p.  452. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  VI.,  p.  565. 
tAny  Unabridged  Encyclopaedia. 

^Journal  of  British   Dental   Association   of  Dental  Science,  vol.  V., 
p.  407. 

American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  XIV.,  p.  2S3. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  83 

for  learning  and  scientific  knowledge  in  all  its 
various  departments  were  taught  and  practiced  by 
the  priesthood  ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  this  know- 
ledge the  individual  had  to  take  the  vows  of  the 
priest  wiiile  young,  and  be  reared  in  the  order. 


ADDITIONAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Greece  and  Greek  Antiquities — Green  ;  Mu- 
seum of  Antiquity  —  Haines  ;  Ancient  His- 
tory and  Archaeology  of  Greece — Grote,  12  vols., 
1846;  Grecian  Archaeology — Pantazis,  Pittakis 
and  Lambros  ;  Rise  and  Fall  of  Athens — Bulwer  ; 
Life  and  Manners  of  the  Greeks — Guhl  ;  Life  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  His  Times — Williams  ; 
Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Greece — St. 
John  ;  Antiquities  of  Athens — Stewart  ;  Medical 
and  Surgical  Art  Among  the  Grecians — Creighton  ; 
Geschichte  der  Medizin — Haeser  ;  History  of  Medi- 
cine— Paulus  ^gineta ;  Life  and  works  of  Hip- 
pocrates— Greenhill.  ^ 


*See  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


84  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


ROMAN  DENTAL  ART. 


We  will  now  bid  the  scholarly  Grecians  good 
bye  and  travel  to  the  land  of  war — Italy — there  to 
greet  the  model  Roman.  Although  the  Romans 
were  constantly  engaged  in  battle,  yet  some  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  finer  arts. 

In  the  early  history  of  Rome  the  arts  and 
sciences  made  but  little  progress,  and  what  advance- 
ments that  came,  were  derived  from  the  Greeks 
and  Egyptians.  We  learn  from  Pliney  ''that  the 
art  and  science  of  medicine  and  surgery  were  intro- 
duced into  Rome  at  a  later  period  than  the  various 
other  human  accomplishments."  He  further  writes 
that  "for  nearly  six  hundred  years  the  Roman 
people  were  without  medical  or  surgical  aid  ;  not 
that  no  attempt  was  made  to  cure  disease,  but  that 
these  attempts  *  consisted  mainly  in  superstitious 
observations."  Thus,  according  to  Levy,  "following 
the  advice  of  the  Sibylline  books,  pestilences  were 
repeatedly  stayed  at  Rome  by  erecting  a  temple  to 
some  favorite  god."  Like  their  immediate  neigh- 
bors, the  Grecians,  after  whom  they  copied,  made 
priests  of  the  temples  custodians   of    divine   cure. 

In  tkose  ancient  times  to   endow  a  monastery, 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  802. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  85 

found  one,  or  to  have  performed  a  miracle  was  the 
safest  passport  to  canonization.  The  following, 
taken  from  an  ancient  work  on  mythological  beliefs, 
gives  a  complete  list  of  such  saints  and  gods  as 
the  plebians  were  obliged  to  give  devotion,  in  case 
of  ordinary  dental  troubles:  "Saint  Apollonia 
guarded  against  toothache  ;  Saint  Lucy  guarded 
against  sore  tooth;  Saint  Anthony  guarded  against 
inflammation  ;  Saint  Germanus  guarded  against 
diseased  erruption  ;  Saint  Marcus  guarded  against 
neuralgia;  Saint  Herbert  guarded  against  poisoned 
teeth."* 

The  Roman  priests  also  erected  temples  in 
memory  of  the  great  Grecian  physician,  ^scula- 
pius,  and  worshiped  him  as  a  god  of  medicine. 
The  cock  was  commonly  sacrificed  to  his  memory, 
but  a  peculiar  breed  of  serpents  t  was  the  favorite 
votive.  The  monks  shrewdly  worked  upon  the  con- 
fidence of  the  laity  as  regards  the  miraculous  cures 
wrought  by  praying  to  -^sculapius,  and  the 
priests  of  the  temples  at  once  founded  the  society 
known  as  ^sculapae,]:  or  children  of  ^sculapius, 
and  the  members  of ,  this  association  were  the  only 
regular    physicians    and     surgeons    of    antiquity. 

♦Development  of  Relig-ious  Belief  s— Gould,  1870. 

Mythology  of  Ancient  Italy— Keig-htley,  1844. 

Roman  Mytholog-y— Poeller,  1865. 

Dental  Review,  vol.  III.,  p.  430. 

Miracles  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Saints— Rev.  O'Connor,  1893. 
tAmerican  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  152. 
+Ibid. 


86  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

"The  sale  of  ^sculapian  snakes,  or  holy  snakes,"* 
as  they  were  called,  was  a  source  of  revenue  to  the 
priests  and  physicians  who  lived  about  the  temples. 
Thus  religion,  medicine  and  surgery  were  practiced 
together,  and  through  the  instrumentality  of  priest- 
physicians  sacrifices  and  votive  offerings  of  value 
served  to  enrich  the  medical  temples  and  oppose 
the  anger  of  the  immortal  gods  and  saints  at  the 
same  time.  Charms,  talismans  and  amulets  were 
resorted  to  for  individual  ailments  and  to  ward  off 
diseases. 

The  priests  in  simple  had  what  we  would  now- 
adays term  a  ''corner  on  medical  science,"  and 
they  jealously  guarded  the  votaries  and  fought 
every  advance  made  by  the  plebians  towards  medi- 
cal discoveries. 

Pliney  says:  "Thus  the  priests  became  the 
recognized  surgeons  and  they  taught  the  science 
with  many  acult  and  mysterious  ceremonies  well 
calculated  to  impress  the  vulgar  and  to  excite 
belief  in  their  miraculous  power."  So  we  find  that 
the  great  science  of  medicine  and  surgery  was  con- 
fined to  the  ancient  priestcraft,  and  they  took  good 
care  to  keep  it  well  saturated  with  mysteries  ;  but 
they  themselves  were  well  posted  and  studied 
laboriously  to  gain  knowledge  in  the  promising  new 
field.      The    priests   discovered    numerous   medical 

*First  Period  in  the  History  of  Dentistry— Patrick,  1SS9. 
American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  345. 
Ibid,  vol.  I.,  pp.  152,  153. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  87 

agencies,  but  the  outside  world  was  kept  ignorant 
of  these  priestly  accomplishments.  While  the 
science  was  being  cradled  by  these  inquisitors  the 
common  surgeon  was  prohibited  from  practicing, 
under  penalty  of  imprisonment  or  death. 

Sumner  has  wisely  said  that  "Vice  and  barbar- 
ism are  inseparable  companions  of  ignorance  and 
superstition,  and  without  knowledge  there  can  be 
no  sure  progress."  Hence  we  comprehend  why 
there  was  a  pause  in  the  research  and  advance- 
ment in  surgical  science;  the  priests,  having  full 
sway  and  unlimited  power,  kept  all  information 
from  the  laity,  and  only  a  select  few,  who  had  the 
necessary  influence  and  pecuniary  circumstances, 
could  learn  of  the  new  and  wonderful  discoveries 
in  any  of  the  prosthetic  arts. 

But,  kind  reader,  through  an  agenc)'  entirely 
unknown  to  antiquity,  knowledge  of  every  kind 
has  become  general  and  permanent  ;  it  can  no 
longer  be  confined  to  a  select  circle,  or  crushed  by 
tyranny,  nor  be  lost  by  neglect.  The  press,  ever 
watchful  with  its  one  hundred  eyes  of  Argus,  and 
strong  with  more  than  a  hundred  arms  of  Briarious, 
not  only  guards  all  conquests  of  civilization  but 
leads  the  way  to  further  triumphs. 

Among  the  voluminous  writings  of  the  Latin 
poets  frequent  reference  is  made  to  artificial  teeth. 
The  famous  Martial,  who  lived  in  the  first  century 
B.  C,  says  that   a  Roman   dentist,   "Cascellius,  is 


88  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

in  the  habit  of  fastening,  as  well  as  extracting,  the 
teeth."*  To  Lelius  the  same  author  says:  ''You 
are  not  ashamed  to  purchase  teeth  and^hair,"t  and 
adds  that  "the  toothless  mouth  of  ^gle  was  re- 
paired with  bone  and  ivory  ;"  also  that  "Galla,  more 
refined,  removed  her  artificial  teeth  during  the 
night,  "i  The  immortal  Horace,  of  thie  same  cen- 
tury, cites  the  case  of  the  sorceresses,  Canidia  and 
Sagana,  running  through  the  city  and  losing,  *'the 
one  her  false  hair,  the  other  her  false  teeth." 

Another  quotation  reads:  "Thais  has  black 
teeth,  Lecaniahas  white  ones.  Why  is  this  .^  The 
former  has  her  own  teeth,  the  latter  purchased 
ones."§  The  testimony  of  Martial  refers  only  to 
the  dentistry  of  the  first  century.  But  there  are 
proofs  of  an  earlier  period  of  this  art  in  the  Tenth 
of  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which  date  as 
early  as  450  B.  C,  made  exception  to  burying  or 
burning  gold  with  the  dead,  "such  gold  as  is 
found  in  the  mouths  of  the  deceased  for  the  pur- 
pose of  fastening  the  teeth  together."] 

An   eminent   English    scholar    adds:     "Cicero, 


*  "Eximit  aut  reficit  dentem,  Cascellius,  aegrum" — Martial. 

Dental  CosmosjTol.  XXIX.,  p.  75. 
tPractical  Treatise  on  Crown  and  Bridge-work— Evans,  p.  1. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIX.,  p.  45. 

^Practical  Treatise  on  Crown  and  Bridge-work— Evans,  p.  1. 
iRuyers  Medical  Studies  on  Ancient  Rome— September,  1881. 

North  American  Med.  Chir.  Review— 1881. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  II.,  p.  188. 
IIDental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  2. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  II.,  p.  188. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  89 

when  speaking  of  a  law  passed  to  check  the  un- 
necessary expense  of  funerals,  says:  'Neve  aurum 
addito,' etc. ;  that  is,  add  no  gold  to  the  funeral 
offerings,  but  whosoever  has  his  teeth  bound  with 
gold  *suevi  aurodentes  vincti,'  let  it  be  no  evasion 
of  the  law  to  bury  or  burn  him  without  it.""^ 

The  same  authority  continues,  saying:  "Any 
mechanical  dentistry,  or  prosthetic  dentistry  as 
our  American  friends  prefer  to  call  it,  that  was 
practiced  in  ancient  Rome,  appears  to  have  been 
rather  primitive,  as  the  following  from  the  poet 
Martial  shows: 

"  'Thou  hast  only  three  teeth,  and  these 
Are  of  box-wood,  varnished  over. 
Thou  shouldst  fear  to  laugh  ; 
Weep  always  if  thou  art  wise.'t 

"So  box-wood  was  not  only  used  for  'volubile 
buxum,'  or  boys  spinning  tops,  of  which  Virgil 
speaks,  but  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  was  carved 
into  the  shape  of  teeth.":}: 

When  teeth  are  loosened  by  a  blow  or  other 
causes  Celsus  says  "fasten  them  with  gold  to 
those  that  are  firm."§ 

The  following  from  the  works  of  Duval  bring 
forth  a  latent  ray  of  Roman  dentistry:  ll 

*  'To  be  able  to  laugh  without  fear  of  showing  the 

*Journal  of  the  British  Dental  Association,  vol.  V.,  p.  353. 

tibid,  vol.  v.,  p.  354. 

tibid. 

§Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXI.,  pp.  184,  279. 

IIYouths'  Dentist— Duval,  p.  100. 


90  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

teeth  which  have  been  skillfully  filed,  and  to 
masticate  freely  with  those  which  have  been 
stopped  with  gold,  are  incontestible  proofs  of  our  art. 
But  what  a  satisfaction  to  be  able  to  have  one  or  more 
artificially  replaced  which  have  been  lost  ;  with 
what  alacrity  is  this  innocent  stratagem  embraced, 
in  order  to  hide  the  disorders  of  the  mouth ! 
Without  it  how  many  mouths  would  be  spoiled  ! 
It  restores  to  the  physiognomy  a  part  of  the  graces 
which  it  had  lost,  and  it  would  have  rendered 
*null  and  void '  the  effect  of  an  ancient  law  among 
the  Romans,  entitled  'Cui  Dens,'  the  object  of 
which  was  to  examine  if  any  one  who  had  Jost  a 
tooth  was  in  the  possession  of  perfect  health." 

*'It  was  about  the  second  century  B.  C,"  says 
Pliney, '  'when  the  medical  profession  was  introduced 
into  Rome,  and  it  was  an  importation  from  Greece.  "* 
The  first  Greek  physician  was  Arcagathus.f  who 
became  a  practitioner  of  medicine  in  Rome  218 
B.  C.  Unfortunately  for  him,  but  no  doubt  well 
for  the  people,  he  had  too  much  confidence  in  his 
remedies,  his  practice  illustrating  his  confidence, 
and  his  patients  died,  and  Rome  was  aroused  to 
prohibit  the  practice  of  medicine  by  law.  J  For 
more  than  a  hundred  years  Rome  was  consequently 
without  a  physician,  but   as  "the  once  proud  mis- 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  S02. 

Any  Unabridg-ed  Encj-clopaedia. 
tis  Medicine  a  Science— Walker,  1889. 

Phrenologrical  Journal,  vol.  XXXIII.,  p.  28£. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  91 

tress  of  the  world,"  grown  lofty  by  her  conquests, 
and  rich  in  all  the  arts  of  wanton  pleasure,  she 
began  to  decay  in  the  first  requisits  of  a  great 
empire,  a  vigorous  manhood,  the  art  of  the  phy- 
sician became  a  recognized  desideratum,  and  soon 
again  the  sects  were  almost  as  numerous  as  those 
of  their  rival  nation. 

We  learn  that  in  the  year  60  A.  D.,  Androma- 
chus,  a  Roman  physician,  invented  *'theriac"  for 
filling^  the  decayed  teeth.  It  was  a  mixture  sup- 
posed to  possess  great  healing  properties.  Subse- 
quently theriac  was  considered  the  great  panacea, 
and  was  made  with  great  solemnity  in  open  market- 
places of  Rome  and  Venice. 

Of  the  few  Latin  medical  authors,  Celsus, 
the  first  native  Roman  physician,  is  the  chief.  He 
lived  in  the  first  century  and  wrote  voluminous 
treatise  on  architecture,  philosophy,  rhetoric  and 
medicine,  on  which  latter  departure  his  eminence 
rests.  His  book,  "The  Medicine,"  is  a  digest  of 
what  was  known  to  the  ancients  on  the  subject,  and 
portrays  the  great  progress  made  in  consequence 
of  the  labors  of  the  anatomists  at  the  Alexandrian 
library.  Celsus  treated  of  most  of  the  great  sur- 
gical operations,  and  the  operations  on  the  dental 
organs  did  not  escape  his  notice. 

If    we   may  place   reliance   on   written   history 


*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.  670. 
Vierteljahrsschrift  des  Vereins  Deutcher  Zahnkuenstler— 1881. 


92  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

then  we  are  obliged  to  believe  that  it  was  Cor- 
nelius Celsus,  the  noted  Roman  surgeon  of  the 
time  of  Tiberius,  who  wrote  upon  the  diseases  of 
the  teeth  -  and  their  treatment,  and  he  is  also 
credited  with  inviting  or  introducing  the  art  of 
plugging  teeth  with  gold  foil. 

Celsus,  in  the  year  32  B.  C,  used  the  root- 
forceps,  which  bore  the  Greek  name  "Rhizagra,"f 
although  according  to  the  name  it  would  seem  not 
to  have  been  invented  by  Celsus,  but  by  some 
Greek.  Following  Celsus  came  the  learned  and 
eminent  Claudius  Galen,  born,  A.  D.,  130;  he 
studied  the  art  of  medicine  at  various  recognized 
medical  schools,  but  learned  the  practice  princi- 
pally at  the  Alexandrian  library.  He  practiced  his 
profession  at  Rome.  He,  above  all  others,  gathered 
the  divergent  and  scattered  threads  of  ancient  medi- 
cine and  established  landmarks  which  Father  Time- 
of  to-day  must  recognize.  He  was  a  man  furnished 
with  all  the  anatomical,  medical  and  philosophical 
knowledge  of  his  time.  J  He  found  the  profession 
of  his  time  split  up  into  a  number  of  sects,  and 
medical  science  confounded  under  a  multitude  of 
dogmatic  and  superstitious  systems.  He  appears 
to  have  made  it  his   express   duty  to  reform   these 


♦Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXI.,  pp.  184,  297. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science — Dexter,  1876,  p.  3. 
tDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.  670. 
+Any  Biography  of  Galen. 

Any  Encyclopaedia. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  93 

■evils,  to  reconcile  scientific  acquirements  and  prac- 
tical skill,  to  bring  back  the  unity  of  the  pro- 
fession, and  wrest  the  practice  from  the  hands  of 
the  clergy.  He  accomplished  all  he  anticipated  and 
he  wrote  an  encyclopaedia  of  medicine,  and  for  up- 
wards of  a  score  of  centuries  his  authority  reigned 
supreme.*  His  knowledge  of  the  teeth  was  exten- 
sive and  he  described  accurately  many  dental 
•diseases. 

Subsequent  to  the  death  of  Celsus  and  Galen, 
medical  and  surgical  art  once  more  came  to  the 
hands  of  the  priestcraft ;  the  pagan  priest  had  now 
differentiated,  and  recognized  as  Roman  Catho- 
lic priests.  For  generations  upon  generations  the 
Roman  clergy  were  the  sole  monarchs  of  the  medi- 
cal profession.  The  extraction  of  teeth  and  all 
•other  minor  operations  were  directly  in  their 
•domain,  and  the  general  practitioner  suffered  much 
after  the  same  fashion  as  did  his  Greek  colleague. 
At  that  early  period  it  was  a  part,  and  an  important 
one  at  that,  of  the  curriculum  of  the  theological 
student  to  learn  and  practice  the  art  of  medicine 
and  surgery.  Fortunately  for  the  medical  profes- 
sion,-after  repeated  struggles  the  council  of  Tours,  f 
held  in  the  city  of  Tours,  France,  early  in  1 163,  an 
•edict  was  enacted  in  which  the  clergy  were  inter- 
dicted from  all  surgical  practice.      The  clergy,  how- 

*Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  pp.  802,  803. 
tAmericati  Cj-clopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  349. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  806. 


94  THE    RISE,   FALL    AXD    REVIVAL  \ 

ever,  were  permitted  to  continue  as  physicians,  and, 
up  to  this  late  day  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
theological  student  of  the  Roman  church  is  obliged 
to  acquire  a  fair  knowledge  of  medicinal  agencies, 
and  is  taught  their  effective  uses.  It  was  Guy-de- 
Chauliac,*  a  Roman  priest,  who  compiled  from  the 
Grecian  and  Arabian  authors  the  earliest  works  on 
medicine  and  surgery.  He  practiced  the  profession 
at  Lyons,  France,  and  was  afterwards  employed  by 
three  popes  of  Avigon,  Clement  VI.,  Innocent  VI. 
and  Urban  V. ;  he  taught  the  art  in  one  of  the 
ecclesiastical  colleges  of  Rome,  and  was  recognized 
as  a  Roman  authority  on  medicine. 

A  writer  in  one  of  our  early  dental  journals  f 
tells  the  following  : 

"Until  this  period  (middle  ages)  nothing  had 
been  employed  for  filling  the  teeth  but  resinous 
and  aromatic  substances,  intended  rather  to  calm 
the  pain  than  to  strengthen  the  member.  The 
first  to  speak  of  filling  with  gold-leaf  is  John  Arcu- 
laus,  who  filled  teeth  with  this  material.  Jean 
De  Vigo  permitted  abscesses  of  the  gums  to  ripen, 
then  treating  them  with  honey  and  Egyptian  oint- 
ment. He  used  for  carles,  especially  the  molars, 
the   file  and  rasp,    and    filled  teeth  with  gold-leaf 


*Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  806. 
American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  IV.,  p.  344. 
Grand  Surg-ery,  Joubert,  1592- 
tNew  York  Dental  Journal,  vol,  II.,  p.  79. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  95 

apparently  approximating  to  the  modern  treat- 
ment." 

The  Roman  practice  of  cremating  all  but  the 
most  noted  of  their  dead  has  consequently  de- 
stroyed most  of  the  desired  evidence  in  this  direc- 
tion. Ovid  and  Virgil  make  similar  remarks  which 
prove,  beyond  the  shadow  of  doubt,  that  Dental 
Prosthesis  was  a  known  art  to  ancient  Romans. 

As  to  the  condition  of  the  teeth  in  prehistoric 
and  medieval  or  modern  times  I  can  quote  no 
better  authority  than  Dr.  Talbot,  who  has  devoted 
years,  energy  and  finance  to  learn  of  the  true  con- 
dition of  the  dental  organs  or  their  substitutes  of 
our  historic  ancestors.  In  an  address"^  by  the  doc- 
tor (in  1 891)  he  says,  relative  to  the  ancient  dental 
practitioner:  "The  instruments  for  dental,  as  well 
as  surgical  purposes,  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
museums  of  Europe,  together  with  the  beautiful 
specimens  of  Etrurian  and  Phoenician  dentistry, 
now  in  the  possession  of  Drs.  Van  Marter,  of 
Rome;  Barrett,  of  Buffalo,  and  Taft  of  Cincinnati, 
are  striking  illustrations  of  the  superior  ability 
which  men  of  early  times  acquired." 

These  specimens  of  which  Dr.  Talbot  speaks 
are  rare,  owing  not  to  the  supposed  cause  of  den- 
tures not  being  common  in  ancient  days,  but  on 
account  of  the  peculiar  customs  of  these  early  folks 
in    disposing  of  their  dead,  the  few  and  treasured 

♦Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXXIII.,  p.  456. 


96  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

relics,  which  we  as  a  profession  possess,  have  come 
down  to  us  simply  because  time,  weather  and  cir- 
cumstances did  not  destroy  them. 

In  1889  Dr.  Barrett,  while  exhibiting  some  of 
the  treasure-trove,  remarked:^  "These  specimens 
date  from  about  the  founding  of  Rome.  They  are 
of  more  than  unusual  interest,  as  they  bear  unim- 
peachable testimony  on  some  interesting  points 
connected  with  the  teeth  of  man.  Dentists  of 
to-day  usually  entertain  the  idea  that  the  preva- 
lence of  diseases  of  the  teeth  is  to  be  attributed  to 
the  altered  methods  of  living,  to  the  modes  of 
cooking  food,  to  change  in  the  manner  of  life,  etc. 
Some  years  since  I  had  examined  about  two 
thousand  (2,oooj  ancient  skulls,  more  especially 
with  reference  to  evidences  of  dental  disease. 
The  examination  at  once  demonstrated  conclu- 
sively that  all  the  diseases  of  modern  life,  except 
syphilis,  were  as  rife  in  ancient  times  as  to-day. 
Two  of  the  teeth  I  have  shown  \'ou  prove  the 
existence  of  pyorrhea  alveolaris  in  teeth  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  }*ears  before  the  Christian  era." 

Now,  if   this,    as   Dr.  Barrett    cites,  is  correct, 

which  no  doubt  it  is,  there  is  abundant  proof   that 

in  those  days,  like  in  our  own  times,  there  were, 

as  Shakespeare  says: 

"Sans  teeth,  sans  eyes, 
Sans  taste,  sans  everything." 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXXI.,  p.  148. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  97 

And  since  Dr.  Talbot  comes  to  us  with  con- 
.'scientious  assurance  that  the  ancient  practitioners 
were  highly  skilled  in  the  preserving,  and  as  well, 
reconstructing  dental  organs,  we  must  feel  con- 
vinced that  the  old  dentists  practiced  upon  the 
*'sans  teeth,"  of  which  Dr.  Barrett  lends  undoubted 
•  authority. 

The  reason  why  I  dwell  upon  this  subject  of 
ancient  dental  substitutes  is  that  we  have  modern 
:scientists  among  our  ranks  who  are  attempting  to 
popularize  the  idea  that  there  are  not  in  existence 
•any  authentic  proofs  of  there  having  ever  been  in 
-ancient  times  dental  practitioners,  nor  that  the 
mouldering  dead  demonstrate  the  science  of  crown 
bridgework  or  artificial  teeth.  Some  years  since 
one  of  our  American  dentists  wrote  an  article  for 
•one  of  our  dental  journals,  in  which  the  author 
states  that  "no  well  authenticated  case  of  gold 
filling  has  been  found  in  the  teeth  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  Etrurians  or  Egyptians,  and  that  the 
superior  cement  reported  to  exist  in  the  teeth  of 
these  dead  has  proved  to  be  simply  tartar."  The 
same  author  adds  that  the  socalled  ''bridgework" 
reported  to  have  been  found  are  crude  attachments 
of  artificial  teeth  by  gold  wire,  and  from  large  use 
in  the  mouth  are  thickly  coated  with  calcareous 
deposits.  Their  mechanical  contrivances  are  in  no 
wise  comparable  with^  the  artificial  productions  of 
to-day." 


98  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

It  gratifies  me  to  tell  you,  as  readers,  that 
many  genuine  cases  of  filled  teeth,  crown-work 
and  bridges  which  were  exhumed  in  various  parts 
of  Italy,  Greece,  Etruria  and  Egypt,  are  on 
exhibition  in  the  present  Columbian  World's  Fair, 
and  I  hope  the  writer  of  the  aforespoken  dis- 
claimer can  have  the  pleasure  of  acknowledging 
his  mistake. 

In  a  recent  copy  of  a  scientific  weekly  paper  I 
noticed  the  following  seemingly  wonderful  dis- 
closure: "It  is  claimed  by  the  modern  dental  sur- 
geon that  ancient  people  had  their  teeth  filled  with 
gold,  obviously  to  prevent  further  decay  of  the 
teeth.  This,  on  recent  and  close  investigation, 
proves  to  be,  as  the  Americans  term  it,  a  fake,  and  it 
is  easily  proven  to  be  such.  What  the  anxious  den- 
tists of  to-day  thought  to  be  gold  plugs  were  cleari- 
fied  to  be  nothing  more  or  less  than  mere  gilding 
of  the  teeth.  The  belles  of  old  were  accustomed 
to  lend  aesthetic  marks  to  their  delicate  features 
by  gilding  their  front  teeth." 

This  writer,  too,  no  doubt,  believes  that  he  has 
solved  an  intricate  problem,  but  in  this  case  his 
little  knowledge  has  proven  to  be  a  dangerous 
thing,  since  he  does  discredit  to  the  ancients  and 
attempts  to  deprive  medical  science  of  its  laurels 
and  simultaneously  rob  history  of  facts.  Had  the 
writer  drank  but  deeper  of  the  Pierian-spring  he 
would  have    sipped  up    a  draught  of    information 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  99 

such  as  would  have  not  only  cautioned  him  against 
writing  as  he  did,  but,,  on  the  contrary,  stimulated 
him  to  regard  records  of  the  past  as  worthy  of 
deep  and  continued  study.  It  is  true  that  in  many 
of  the  tombs  of  ancient  Italy  and  Greece  the 
mummified  corpses  present  golden  teeth,  or  more 
clearly  speaking,  gilded  teeth,  and  it  will  be  of 
interest  to  us  to  learn  why  such  was  the  case. 

We  learn  in  the  Grecian  as  well  as  Roman 
mythology  that  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  an 
eminent  personage,  and  more  especially  the  kings, 
emperors  and  public  benefactors,  the  burial  cere- 
mony included  the  gilding  of  the  teeth  of  the  dead.^ 
And  why  this  you  ask  ?  For  the  simple  and  partic- 
ular reason  that  their  mythological  belief  proclaimed 
that  the  teeth  be  gilded,  in  order  that  the  departed 
might  greet  the  immortal  gods  of  judgment  in  all 
possible  glory.  The  river  Styxt  was  by  them  sup- 
posed to  be  the  boundary  line  between  life  and 
death,  and  in  consequence  the  departed,  in  order 
to  enter  the  kingdom  of  the  immortal  god — heaven 
— were  obliged  to  cross  this  fearful  river,  Styx.  But 
to  facilitate  the  passage,  the  dead  must  be  in  the 
good  graces  of  the  god  Charon,  J  the  watchman  of 
this  stream  and  the  ferryman  of  the  shades  of  death, 

♦Roman  Mythology — Haines,  p.  485. 

Classical  and  Mytholog-ical  Dictionary— Carleton. 

Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  47. 
tAny  Unabridg-ed  Encyclopaedia. 
tAmerican  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  IV.,  p.  321. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  V.,  p.  430. 


lOO  THE    RISE,    FALL   AND    RE\1VAL 

and  in  no  way  could  the  love  of  this  god  be  secured 
other  than  by  gilded  teeth  and  copper  coin.  The 
fee  exacted  by  him  for  this  service  from  each  spirit 
ferried  over  the  Styx  was  never  less  than  one 
obulus — one  penny — nor  more  than  three  ;  and  to 
provide  for  this  fee  small  coins  were  placed  in  the 
mouths  of  the  dead."^  The  spirits  of  those  bodies 
which  had  not  gilded  teeth  and  sufficient  copper 
coin  to  pass,  were  supposed  to  wander  on  the 
shore  of  the  Styx  for  one  century,  after  which 
period  the  god  Charon  would  permit  the  unfortu- 
nates to  enter  the  boat  and  cross  the  stream  and  be 
escorted  to  the  seat  of  judgment.  Now  then,  kind 
listeners,  we  comprehend  why  some  of  the  dead 
and  mummified  bodies  of  the  ancients  have  gilded 
teeth. 

I  would  caution  any  reader  against  believing  too 
readily  anything  pertaining  to  the  accomplishments 
of  the  ancient  dentists;  yet  I  also  would  advise  him 
not  to  be  too  reluctant  about  yielding,  especially 
when  the  facts  and  figures  thoroughly  demonstrate 
him  as  being  opposite  to  truth  and  justice. 


♦Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancients— Mrs.  Dorman  Steele,  p.  32. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  lOI 


ADDITIONAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Medicine  and  Surgery  Among  the  Romans — 
Payne;  Christian  Antiquities — Smith;  The  Papacy 
— MuUinger;  Roman  Law — Muirhead,  1889;  History 
of  Roman  Law  in  the  Middle  Ages — Savigny,  vol. 
II. ;  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Republic — 
Long,  1845;  Kunst  und  Kuenstler  Italiens,  1878; 
Antiquities  of  Rome — Cresy,  1821;  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire — Gibbon,  1862;  Hand- 
buch  der  Roemisher  Alterthuemer;  Annals  of 
Roman  Ecclesiastics — Baronius;  Topography  and 
Archaeology  of  Rome — Middleton,  1889;  Mythology 
of  Ancient  Rome — Keightley,  1844;  Manual  of 
Mythology — Murray,  1873;  Records  of  the  Past — 
Schrader,  1874;  Historic  and  Monumental  Rome — 
Hemans,  1872;  Museum  of  Antiquity — Haines, 
1885;  Works  of  Galen — Cox;  Medicine  in  Galen's 
Time — Gasquet.  * 


♦See  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


102  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


ETRURIAN    DENTAL  ART. 


The  Etrurians,  who  inhabited  the  northern  part 
of  Italy,  were  well  skilled  in  mechanical  sciences, 
and  Etruria  flourished  as  the  Italian  seat  of  learn- 
ing, wealth  and  power.  These  ancient  Etrurians 
were  a  very  remarkable  people.  Among  them  the 
fine  arts  were  highly  cultivated  and  dexterity  so 
well  developed  as  at  the  present  time  to  excite 
admiration.  They  were  exceedingly  luxurious^  in 
both  dress  and  appetite,  and  extremely  fond  of 
personal  ornaments,  even  going  so  far  as  to  have 
their  sound  natural  teeth  gilded,  a  custom  of  which 
our  modern  belles  cannot  boast. 

In  those  days  the  barber  did  not  claim  den- 
tistry as  a  foster  child,  as  the  following  depiction 
of  a  tonsorial  shop,  by  Plutarch,  about  73  A.  D., 
will  clearly  show:  "The  barbershop,  with  its  talk- 
ative inmates,  was  not  only  frequented  by  those 
requiring  the  service  of  the  barber  in  cutting  hair, 
shaving,  cutting  the  nails  and  corns  and  tearing 
out  small  hairs,  but  was  also  a  symposium  house 
where  politics  and  local  news  were  discussed. "t 
Had  the  barber  in  this  ancient  day  practiced  the 
science   or   art   of   dentistry,  this  writer,  who  was 

♦Anj-  historj'  of  the  Etrurians. 
tMuseura  of  Antiquity— Haines,  p.  226. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  IO3 

very  minute  and  exacting  in  his  composition,  would 
have  made  proper  reference  in  the  description. 

Among  the  Etrurians  dental  science  was  studied 
and  practiced  as  a  specialty  of  medicine;  "however, 
in  this  department  of  learning,"  says  Professor  G. 
A.  F.  VanRhyn,  the  eminent  archaeologist,  "the 
Etrurians  were  imitative  rather  than  creative,  and 
the  art  bore  at  every  period  the  marks  of  foreign 
influence,  especially  Egyptian,  Babylonian  and 
Grecian."* 

Notwithstanding  that  the  Etrurian  dentists 
patterned  much  after  the  oriental  artists,  yet  much 
credit  is  due  them  for  having  perfected  many  dental 
operations  of  a  more  difficult  character.  We  shall, 
in  the  near  future,  know  more  about  the  accomplish- 
ments of  the  Etrurians,  since  many  archaeologists 
are  hard  at  work  solving  the  language  of  these 
grand  people.  They  left  us  no  key  to  their  strange 
language,  and  no  history  except  that  which  is 
written  in  the  tombs,  hence  all  we  know  of  them  is 
from  adjacent  and  contemporary  nations  of  people. 
Numerous  are  the  theories  advanced  as  regards 
derivation  or  origin  of  the  Etrurian  race.  Simul- 
taneous with  the  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  lang- 
uage shall  come  a  long,  interesting  and  profitable 
lesson  relative  to  their  attainments  as  dental  prac- 
titioners. 

♦Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  2. 


I04  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

The  Etrurians,"  like  the  Greeks  and  Romans^ 
held  great  faith  in  the  mythological  gods,  and  much 
like  the  oriental  people  sought  the  good  will  of  the- 
angry  immortals  by  prayers,  votive  offering  and 
sacrifices. 

Their  priests,  whom  they  called  "lucumos,"  were 
the  guards  and  guides  of  the  various  religious  and 
medical  temples,  but  the  medical  profession  with 
its  numerous  branches  was  practiced  with  great 
success,  as  we  learn  from  the  object  lessons  left  us. 

Modern  dentists  feel  somewhat  flattered  by 
their  late  success  in  crown  and  bridge  work,  but 
our  prehistoric  professional  forefathers  we  find  did 
the  same  ingenious  work  centuries  ago. 

In  the  museum  at  Cornets,  Italy,  can  be  found, 
carefully  guarded  with  lock  and  key,  two  speci- 
mens of  ancient  Etrurian  bridgework.f  Their 
authenticity  is  undoubted  since  Van  Marter,  at; 
present  a  Roman  dentist,  procured  from  the  Sig. 
Dasti,  the  royal  inspector  of  excavations  and 
exhumations  at  Cornets,  Etruria,  a  certificate  duly 
signed  and  sealed,  testifying  that  said  specimens 
of  gold  bridge-work  were  discovered  in  the  mouth 
of  a  corpse  which  had  been  entombed  upwards  of 
two  thousand  four  hundred  years  ago.      The  cases 


*Any  Unabridg-ed  Encyclopaedia. 

tSome  Evidences  of  Prehistoric  Dentistry  in  Italy— Van  Marter,  1885. 

Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  243. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol,  XXXIII.,  p.  456. 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  vol.  II.,  p.  87. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  IO5 

were  well  made,  the  artificial  teeth  were  evidently 
carved  from  the  teeth  of  some  large  animal,  and 
were  well  executed.  The  artificial  substitutes  were 
the  two  superior  central  incisors  and  the  first 
bicuspid  of  the  left  side.  The  artificial  centerals 
and  the  natural  lateral  and  cuspid  of  the  right  side 
were  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation,  and  the 
entirety  was  retained  in  position  by  gold  bands, 
while  the  natural  lateral,  cuspid  and  second  bicus- 
pid and  artificial  first  bicuspid  of  the  left  side  were 
lost.  The  three  substitutes  were  also  encircled  by 
gold  bands  secured  by  rivets  passed  through  each 
tooth.  Three  cases  more  of  a  similar  construction 
were  unearthed  in  the  crumbling  Etrurian  tombs. 

These  are  the  earliest  known  essays  of  dental 
bridgework.  What  conclusions  are  we  to  draw 
from  the  evidence  of  wonderful  surgical  instru- 
ments and  appliances  found  in  the  ruins  of 
Pompeii,  instruments  that  have  been  re-invented 
in  recent  y^ears  to  meet  the  demands  of  modern 
surgery  ?  One  is  almost  inclined  to  call  a  halt 
before  expressing  any  opinion,  and  wait  a  little 
longer  for  excavators  to  dig  up  Etrurian  or  Urbain 
telephones  and  a  long  catalogue  of  similar  sup- 
posed modern  inventions. 

Dr.  Van  Marter  ^  contributes  the  following 
additional  proof  on   Etrurian  dental   art:     "In  the 

*Di-.  Van  Matter  deserves  great  credit  for  having-  produced  proof  of 
Etrurian  dental  art.  To  him  belon<>-s  the  credit  of  the  ^.'reater  portion 
of  this  section. 


I06  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

library  of  the  Barberini  Palace,  Rome,  most  care- 
fully guarded  by  lock,  key  and  screw,  I  found  this 
specimen  of  early  dentistry.  Viewed  under  glass, 
this  case  might  easily  deceive  the  unprofessional 
eye,  for  it  was  thickly  covered  with  the  debris  of 
ages.  It  took  a  great  deal  of  persuasion  to  induce 
the  polite  and  careful  librarian  to  allow  me  to 
remove  enough  of  the  dust  of  centuries  to  see  what 
the  Etrurian  relic  really  was.  It  proved  to  be  four 
natural  teeth,  two  superior  central  incisors,  laterals 
and  cuspids,  banded  together  with  pure  gold  bands, 
and  attached  to  adjoining  teeth.  This  case  belongs 
to  the  same  period  as  those  found  at  Cornets,  and 
in  workmanship  was  so  nearly  identical  that  it 
might  have  been  made  by  the  same  dentist.  It 
was  taken  from  an  Etrurian  tom.b  at  Palestrini, 
near  Rome,  with  numerous  fine  specimens  of  gold 
and  bronze  work. 

"The  most  recently  opened  and  oldest  Etrurian 
tomb  yet  discovered  in  Itah',  was  lately  excavated 
at  Capadimonti,  near  the  lake  of  Bolsena.  The 
entire  contents  of  this  tomb  included  three  teeth 
bound  together  vrith  a  band  of  pure  gold,  gold 
spiral  springs,  silver  finger-rings,  necklace  of  amber 
and  glass,  arm-band,  bronze,  vases,  etc.  This 
tomb  belongs  to  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  There  is 
nothing  to  indicate  that  these  three  teeth  were 
attached  to  any  adjoining  teeth,  and  we  are  left  to 
conjecture  whether  they  were  loose  natural  teeth, 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  10/ 

supported  by  the  gold  band  around  the  lateral 
and  bicuspid.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the 
cuspid  may  have  been  a  transplanted  tooth,  for 
we  are  sure  that  in  those  early  days  they  had  very 
clever  surgeons,  and  slaves  were  made  to  serve 
their  lords  and  masters  in  any  capacity,  'from 
building  grand  tem.ples  and  monuments  to  supply- 
ing teeth  for  transplantation. '  Certainly  the  spaces 
between  these  teeth  are  wide  enough  to  satisfy  the 
most  rabid  dental  separatist,  and  the  position  of  the 
teeth  does  not  indicate  that  perfect  regularity  and 
symmetry  were  the  invariable  rule,  even  in  those 
early  days.  This  is  significant,  when  we  consider 
that  the  former  owner  of  these  teeth  was  evidently 
a  lady  of  distinction,  judging  from  the  ornaments 
and  contents  of  the  tomb.  At  least  this  specimen 
of  early  Etrurian  dental  work  is  of  interest  to  us  as 
the  oldest  yet  found  in  Italy,  and  as  supplying  one 
of  the  missing  links  of  the  dental  chain  we  are 
endeavoring  to  trace  back  to  the  beginning  of  our 
profession.  It  is  certain  that  dentistry  must  have 
been  extensively  practiced  in  the  early  history  of 
the  world  and  that  gold  must  have  been  used 
largely." 

In  1884  the  great  English  surgeon.  Sir  Spencer 
Wells,*  made  investigations  relative  to  Etrurian 
medical  and  dental  science  and  expressed  great 
interest  in  the  matter;  he  related  to  Dr.  Van  Mar- 

♦Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  4. 


I08  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

ter,  D.  D.  S.,  of  Rome,  that  he  learned  that  these 
ancient  folks  had  their  teeth  filled  with  a  kind  of 
fusible  metal.  The  noted  English  archaeologist  and 
writer,  Mr.  Forbes,  while  in  Etruria  and  Rome, 
discovered  that  many  of  the  mummified  dead  had 
teeth  filled  with  gold  "^  and  a  peculiar  amalgam. 

Hence  we  would  conclude  that  few  Etrurians 
suffered  or  died  from  toothache.  On  the  contrary, 
we  are  inclined  to  think  they  had  better  teeth  than 
we  of  nowadays  have,  and  that  in  many  respects 
these  people  were  wiser  than  we. 

As  a  rule  they  cremated  their  dead  and  this 
custom  of  theirs  renders  our  task  of  procuring  evi- 
dence a  very  dif^cult  one.  From  what  I  can  learn, 
only  great  warriors  and  civilians  of  distinction 
were  embalmed  and  laid  at  rest  in  the  family  tomb. 
Two  or  three  thousand  years  of  time  has  accom- 
plished the  same  end,  since  nearly  all  those  who  were 
embalmed  and  laid  to  rest  in  state  suffered  the  same 
result,  thus:  "Ashes  to  ashes,  dust  to  dust."  This 
narrows  our  limits  of  research  to  a  small  territory, 
and  makes  it  rather  surprising  that  any  symbol  of 
dental  work  should  come  down  to  us  from  those 
remote  times. 

But  in  the  da}'s  of  flourishing  Etruria,  only  the 
elite  were  fortunate  enough  to  receive  the  benefits 
of  dental  operations,  while  the  low  and  lowly  were 

♦Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  4. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  IO9 

forced   to  suffer  the  tortures  which  diseases  of  the 
teeth  and  oral  cavity  entailed. 

The  tombs  in  which  the  elite  of  those  days  were 
enshrined  were  most  beautifully  finished  and  their 
walls  were  ornamented  with  frescoes  typical  of  the 
life  at  that  period.  Time  has  naturally  covered 
these  sacred  vaults,  and  the  ground  above  them  has 
been  cultivated  for  ages,  while  below  are  human 
ashes  telling  unknown  legends  of  the  lost  art — 
Dentistry. 


ADDITIONAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Antiquities  of  Etruria — Lanzi;  Ancient  Etruria 
— Mueller;  Archaeological  Discoveries  in  Etruria 
— Wachsmuth;  Museum  of  Etrurian  Urns  and  Sar- 
cophagi— Brunn;  Etrurian  Jewelry  and  Metal 
Ornaments — Murray;  Etrurian  Arts  and  Sciences 
— Murray;  History  of  Ancient  Etruria — Deecke; 
Ancient  Artists — Spence;  Accomplishments  of 
Ancient  Etrurians — Steub."^ 


*See  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


no  THE    RISE,    FALL    AXD    REVIVAL 


FALL  AXD  REVIVAL  OF  DENTAL  ART. 


The  science  of  dentistry  from  the  fifth  to  the 
eighteenth  century  was  entirel}*  neglected,  and  to 
the  suffering  masses  lost  in  oblivion  during  the 
long  and  blank  period  of  human  record,  historically 
known  as  the  middle  ages.  In  this  time  the  mere 
operation  of  extracting  useless  and  painful  teeth 
was  the  extent  of  dental  science,  thus  this  dark 
age  not  only  retarded  advancement -in  our  science, 
but  it  produced  retrogression  ;  with  but  few  oc- 
casional rays  of  light  penetrating  its  misty  veil,  only 
to  be  immediately  swallowed  in  the  dense  sur- 
rounding gloom  of  superstition  and  religious  intol- 
erance."^ 

During  these  dark  days,  known  as  the  dark 
ages,  all  sciences  and  arts  were  completely  neg- 
lected and  the  born  artists,  scientists  and  even  the 
philosophers  were,  by  cruel  fate,  turned  into 
soldiers,  knights  and  marshals.  This  gloomy 
period  covered  a  duration  of  time  estimated  by 
historians  to  be  about  one  thousand  years,  t  All 
professions  suffered  in  this  reign  of  terror  and  the 
various  callings  of  scientific  men  fell  to  the  hands 
of  mere  artisans  and  laborers.      Dentistr\-,  once  in 

*Any  complete  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Any  Unabridg-ed  Encyclopaedia. 
tAny  complete  History  of  the  World. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  Ill 

the  hands  of  competent  and  deserving  men,  now 
took  a  retrograde  step  and  became  a  branch  of 
the  blacksmith's,  barber's  and  jeweler's  trade. 
Oral  surgery,  or  more  properly  speaking  dental 
surgery,  was  then  practiced  by  the  barbers  and 
blacksmiths  exclusively.  The  following  from 
George  Elliot's  Romola^  (1492)  well  illustrates  the 
tonsorial  claim  on  the  dental  school:  "Nay  Bratti," 
said  the  barber  in  an  undertone,  "thy  wisdom  has 
mutTh  of  the  ass  in  it,  as  I  told  thee  just  now  ; 
especially  about  the  ears.  This  stranger  is  a 
Greek,  else  I'm  not  the  barber  who  has  had  the 
sole  and  exclusive  shaving  of  the  excellent  Calcon- 
dila  Demetrio  and  drawn  more  than  one  sorry 
tooth  from  his  learned  jaw." 

In  the  same  book  is  found  t  the  following:  "The 
Chirurgic  Art!  *  *  ^  Is  it  your  Florentine 
fashion  to  put  the  masters  of  the  science  of  medi- 
cine on  a  level  with  men  who  do  carpentry  on 
broken  limbs,  etc.,  and  sew  up  wounds  like  tailors, 
and  carve  av/ay  excrescences  as  a  butcher  trims 
meat.^  'Via!'  A  manual  art,  such  as  any  artificer 
might  learn,  and  which  has  been  practiced  by 
simple  barbers  like  yourself — on  a  level  with  the 
noble  science  of  Hippocrates,  Galen  and  Avicenna, 
which  penetrates  into  the  occult   influences  of  the 


*Romola,  p.  31. 
*Ibid,  p.  165. 


112  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

Stars  and  plants  and   gems — a  science  locked   up 
from  the  vulgar?" 

Medicine  and  surgery  in  all  their  branches,  hav- 
ing early  deviated  from  their  true  course,  were 
soon  given  over  to  alchemy,  necromancy  and 
magic.  Men  sought  not  after  knowledge  where  it 
was  to  be  found,  but  sat  gazing  into  the  "smoke 
of  perchance,"  dreaming  that  they  might  discern  a 
form,  or  experimented  with  all  manner  of  devices 
in  search  of  a  panacea.  Dentistry  fell  like  all 
other  callings,  and  what  little  had  been  known  was 
doomed  and  lost.  Teeth  were  no  longer  considered 
in  the  light  of  organs  to  be  rescued  from  de- 
struction, but  as  amulets  for  warding  off  evil,  or 
under  varying  circumstances  as  omens  of  good  or 
bad. 

Through  medieval  history  the  figure  of  dark- 
ness so  frequently  applied  to  affairs  of  those 
times,  seems  from  the  dental  standpoint  more 
appropriately  to  apply.  Dental  defects  and  de- 
formities are  mentioned  in  tones  of  pity,  because 
they  were  considered  without  remedy.  The 
familiar  proverb  which  had  its  origin  at  that  time 
"that  a  bad  tooth  was  considered,  of  all  things, 
the  most  desirable  to  be  rid  of,"  leads  us  into  the 
secret  of  darkness.  But  the  subsequent  genera- 
tions, with  their  speculations  and  projects,  dispelled 
the  magic  smoke  and  the  grand  forms  that  were 
disclosed  we  will  gladly  speak  of  later  in  our  study. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  I  13 

A  good  deal  of  the  medical  and  surgical  prac- 
tice of  this  period  was  in  the  hands  of  religious 
orders,  particularly  of  the  Benedictines,*  who  made 
distinguished  strides  of  advancement.  In  Paris  a 
college  was  founded  by  the  monks.  The  college 
was  under  the  protection  of  St.  Cosmast  and  St. 
Damianus,  two  practitioners  of  medicine  and  sur- 
gery ;  the  institution  was  known  as  the  College 
de  St.  Come.f  From  the  time  Lanfranchi  joined 
the  school  it  attracted  many  pupils,  and  it  main- 
tained its  independent  existence  for  several  cen- 
turies. {  Early  in  the  fourteenth  century  a  council 
of  the  Roman  churcH,  held  in  Paris,  decreed  §"that 
monks  and  priests  be  forbidden  to  perform  bloody 
operations,"  and  surgery  was  again  separated  from 
medicine.  By  this  division  the  barbers  and 
bathers  II  fell  heir  to  the  art  and  they  continued  to 
be  the  sole  surgeons  for  several  succeeding  cen- 
turies. In  those  dark  ages  the  barber's  craft  was 
dignified  with  the  title  of  a  profession, *[  being 
joined  with  the  art  of  surgery.  The  French  bar- 
ber-surgeons were  separated  from  the  perruquiers 
and  incorporated**  as  a  distinct  body  in  the  reign  of 

♦Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XXII.,  p.  675. 
fAny  Cyclopaedia. 

JSee  pages  93  and  94  for  further  notice  on  the  clercry  and  medical 
science. 

§American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XV.,  p.  486. 

See  page  93  for  Council  of  Tours. 
llZell's  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  I.,  p.  219. 
UPeople's  Library  of  Information,  p.  416. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  III.,  p.  363. 
**Ibid. 


114  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Louis  XIV.  In  England  barbers  first  received 
incorporation^  from  Edward  IV.  in  1461.  During 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  barbers  were  united 
with  a  company  of  surgeons,  it  being  enacted 
''that  the  barbers  should  confine  themselves  to 
minor  operations  of  blood-letting  and  tooth-draw- 
ing while  the  surgeons  were  prohibited  from 
barbery  or  shaving.""^ 

Some  years  since,  the  great  American,  Dr. 
Oliver  Wendell  Homes,  in  addressing  a  class  of 
dental  students,  said:t  ''Xo  longer  ago  than  when 
President  Holyoke,  whose  son,  the  venerable  phy- 
sician, some  of  us  well  remember,  entered  upon 
the  duties  of  his  office,  and  for  years  after  that 
time,  the  London  Company  of  Barber-Surgeons 
were  holding  their  meetings  at  their  hall  in  Monk- 
well  street  ;  and  it  was  not  till  very  near  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  that  the  surgeons  were 
incorporated  as  a  separate  body.  It  was  about 
the  same  time,  that  is,  during  the  reign  of  George 
II.,  that  the  question  was  discussed  in  open  court, 
before  the  chief  justice  of  England,  whether  a  sur- 
geon was  an  'inferior  tradesman,'  vrithin  the  mean- 
ing of  a  certain  statute  of  William  and  IMary.  But 
we  must  remember  in  what  contempt  other  of  the 
most  useful  occupations  v.'ere  held  so  long  as  society 


*Encjclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  III.,  p.  363. 
American  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  XI.,  p.  349. 
tMissouri  Dental  Journal,  vol.  IV.,  p.  175. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  II5 

was  enslaved  by  its  feudal  traditions.  Traffic  and 
agriculture  were  scorned  by  the  descendants  of  the 
Norman  robbers,  until  they  were  starved  into  bet- 
ter views,  and  more  civil  language  than  they  had 
inherited." 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  jestiqg  poet 
spoke  of  the  barber-surgeon  as: 

''His  pole  with  pewter  basins  hung, 
With  rotten  teeth  in  order  strung, 
And  cups  that  in  the  window  stood 
Lin'd  with  red  rags,  to  look  like  blood. 
Who  shaved,  drew  teeth  and  bled  a  vein.'"* 

About  this  same  time  there  was  a  latent  strife 
which  eventually  burst  forth  in  an  open  contest 
between  the  surgeon  and  the  barber.  We  read 
that  the  barber  surgeons  were  separated  from  the 
mere  perruquiers,  and  that  the  former  were  incor- 
porated as  a  distinct  body  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  This  success  of  the  tonsorial 
trade  gave  them  eminence  in  their  own  eyes,  and 
being  ambitious  to  continue  to  rise  in  public  favor, 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  capture  the  dental 
art,  and  called  themselves  barber-chirurgeons;t  but, 
alas,  the  few  dentists  who,  at  this  period  practiced 
the  various  departments  of  dentistry,  saw  danger 
in  the  barbers'  new  venture  and  so  thoroughly  pro- 
tested the  claim  of  the  tonsors,  on  the  ground 
''that  the  barbers  practiced  the  science  of  dentistry 

♦Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XI.,  p.  556. 
IPeoples'  Library  of  Information,  p.  416. 


Il6  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

and  were  not  regularly  educated,"  that  Louis  XIV., 
in  1 741,  separated  the  barbers  and  dentists  and 
made  two  distinct  vocations."  The  same  grand 
change  took  place  in  England  in  1785,  under 
George  II.  t 

The  barbers  on  the  one  hand  reluctantly  yielded 
to  the  kingly  proclamations,  and  have  retained  up 
to  date  a  desire  to  perform  the  minor  opera- 
tions. Dr.  Hunter  says  on  this  interesting  strug- 
gle: "The  memorial  between  the  dental  profession 
and  the  tonsorial  art  is  still  seen  in  the  striped  pole 
and  basin  sometimes  seen  projecting  as  a  symbol  in 
front  of  the  barber  shops. '':J: 

The  same  was  true  with  reference  to  the  jewel- 
ers, but  to  a  less  earnest  degree. 

This  separation  between  the  humbler  calling 
and  the  more  dignified  profession  immediately 
gained  for  the  science  of  dentistry  a  high  social 
position,  and  has  made  the  most  marvelous  progress 
known  to  any  science  in  the  annals  of  man. 

The  following  extract  from  a  popular  medical 
journal  portraying  our  art  and  its  progress  since 
the  day  when  blacksmiths§  were  its  practitioners: 
"Certainly,  a  good  dentist  deserves  to  be  called 
the  friend  of  man.  And  therefore  we  read  with 
pleasure  that  no  branch  of  surgery  has  made  so 

♦Peoples'  Library  of  Information,  p.  417. 
tEncyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  III.,  p.  363. 
+EncTclopaedic  Dictionary,  vol.  II.,  p.  420. 
iltems  of  Interest,  vol.  XI.,  p.  413. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  I  17 

much  progress  as  dentistry  has  done;  for,  during 
many  dark  ages,  with  respect  both  to  science  and 
to  practice,  it  was  in  a  very  backward  state.  Not 
very  long  ago,  it  is  averred,  blacksmiths  were  much 
in  favor  as  operators  in  this  department — a  fact 
which  seems  to  require  explanation.  It  will  per- 
haps be  surmised  that  they  were  recommended  for 
their  work  by  their  great  bodily  strength.  But 
the  obviousness  of  this  account  of  the  matter  is 
delusive;  the  true  theory  must  be  sought  in  a  more 
roundabout  wa}'.  And  if,  in  the  first  place,  we 
remark  that  the  blacksmith  anciently  discharged 
the  functions  of  a  *  farrier,'  perhaps  this  will  be 
thought  not  to  cast  much  light  upon  the  subject, 
but  rather  itself  to  need  illumination.  Remember- 
ing, however,  that  to  the  minds  of  our  forefathers 
the  offices  of  barber  and  surgeon  seem  naturally  to 
go  together,  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  to  the 
same  minds  it  should  appear  part  of  the  fitness  of 
things  that  the  blacksmith  who  shod  a  horse  should 
also  doctor  it.  And,  now,  as  Mr.  Spencer  would 
say,  observe  the  implication.  In  doctoring  a  horse 
it  must  sometimes  have  been  necessary  to  extract 
a  tooth,  and  it  was  at  once  inferred  that  he  who 
could  extract  a  horse's  tooth,  a  'fortiori,'  could  draw 
a  man's.  And  that  he  did  often  draw,  to  admira- 
tion, both  the  tooth  and  the  man,  maybe  imagined. 
Figure  the  blacksmith  with  his  patient  careering 
round  and  round  the  forge,  emulating  the  dealings 


Il8  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

of — Achilles  with  Hector,  and  then  listened  to 
those  who  deride  what  they  call  the  mere  material 
civilization  of  the  present  day.  Great  is  the  tran- 
sition from  the  blacksmith's  shop  to  the  modern 
dentist's  ingenious  arm  chair — we  had  almost  written 
easy  chair.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  that  the 
need  of  dentists  has  much  increased  with  civiliza- 
tion. It  is  commonly  believed  that  savages  have 
excellent  teeth;  and  although  we  are  nowadays  in 
the  habit  of  suspecting  such  beliefs,  this  one  seems 
probable,  if  we  consider  how  necessary  good  teeth 
are  to  them.  To  any  one  who  is  anxious  to  prove 
'material  civilization'  a  mistake,  the  inquiry  may 
be  suggested:  What  effect  has  the  invention  of 
knives  and  forks  had  upon  the  teeth  of  those 
nations  that  have  condescended  to  adopt  the  use 
of  them?  For  these  pernicious  utensils  plainly 
render  good  teeth  less  a  necessary  of  life  than  they 
were  before,  so  that  people  with  bad  teeth  now 
survive,  transmit  their  degenerate  natural  weapons 
to  their  descendants,  and  so  on."- 

While  the  surgical  portion  of  dental  science  v/as 
being  looked  after  by  the  barber  and  blacksmith, 
the  prosthetic  branch  was  cared  for  by  the  skilled 
jewelersf  of  those  times.  Jewelers  in  those  early 
days  were  far  ahead  of  the  modern  artists,  since 
all  the   intricate   gold   and   gem  work,  as   also  the 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XVI.,  p.  275. 
tPreceding  references. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  II9 

engraving  of  same,  was  all  done  unaided  by  the 
numerous  machines  and  appliances  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  moderns.  On  this  point  Rev.  Haines, 
who  has  investigated  antiquity,  says:  "Etrurian 
and  Roman  jewelers  were  wonderfully  skilled  in 
the  rolling,  smelting  and  manipulating  of  gold  and 
other  precious  metals  in  all  their  various  forms. 
In  fact.  Etrurian  jewelry  has  been  famous  for 
twenty-five  hundred  (2, 500)  years.  I  have  seen 
some  specimens  which  were  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  old  that  would  be  difficult  of  reproduc- 
tion to-day  by  any  but  the  most  skilled  artificers."^ 
Hence  Dental  Prosthesis  was  in  the  safe  keeping  of 
men  who  would  to-day  do  credit  to  their  own  as 
well  as  our  profession. 

But  it  was  not  until  late  in  1700  that  the  science 
of  Dental  Prosthesis  was  eliminated  from  the  jewelry 
shopt  and  put  in  the  hands  of  men  who  not  only 
understood  the  fundamental  principle  underlying 
the  science,  but  also  thoroughly  studied  the  human 
mouth  and  its  many  adjacent  connections.  Oral 
surgery  on  the  other  hand  had  not  been  com- 
pletely restored  to  specialists  or  even  medically- 
skilled  representatives;  in  every  civilized  country 
of  the  earth  the  barber  had  been  known  to  be  defi- 
nately  connected  with  rude  surgery,  such  as  blood- 


*Museuni  of  Antiquitj',  p.  643. 
titems  of  Interest,  vol.  IX.,  p.  150. 
Missouri  Dental  Journal,  vol.  IV.,  p,  175. 


I20  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

letting,  dressing  of  wounds,  and  extracting  of  teeth 
or  the  lancing  of  gums.  In  consequence  of  their 
slight  acquaintance  with  the  rudiments  of  surgery, 
the  name  barber-surgeon  was  usually  applied  to 
those  of  the  barber  trade,  who  demonstrated  some 
surgical  skill.  In  medieval  Etruria  the  barbers 
were  usually  men  of  liberal  education,  and  hence 
their  intimate  association  with  noted  personages 
gave  rise  to  the  Latin  remark:  "As  inseparable  as 
musicus,  tuturos  et  barba " — as  inseparable  as 
the  musician,  teacher  and  barber.  Thus  for  gen- 
erations after  prosthetic  dentistry  ceased  to  be 
practiced  by  jewelers  and  watchmakers,  oral  sur- 
gery was  firm  in  the   grasp  of  the  aspiring,  barber. 

Years  rolled  upon  years  and  generations  after 
generations  passed  beneath  the  sod,  ere  again  the 
dental  specialist  arose  from  among  the  down-trod- 
den trades  to  rise  to  his  former  dignity. 

The  impulse  which  all  departments  of  intellect- 
ual activity  received  from  the  revival  in  Europe  of 
Greek  literature  in  the  fourteenth  century  was  felt 
by  medicine  and  its  several  branches,  and  their 
corresponding  practice  was  gradually  improved. 
The  basis  of  medicine  and  surgery  we  learned  was, 
during  the  middle  ages,  dogmatic.  "The  medical 
literature  now  brought  to  light,"  says  Dr.  Payne,  in 
his  able  treatise  on  medical  progress,  "including  as 
it  did  the    more    important   works    of    Hippocrates 

tAny  Unabridg^ed  Enc3clopaedia. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  121 

and  Galen,  many  of  them  hitherto  unknown,  and 
in  addition  the  forgotton  elements  of  Latin  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  especially  the  work  of  Celsus, 
was  in  itself  far  superior  to  the  second-hand  com- 
pilations and  incorrect  versiohs  which  had  formerly 
been  accepted  as  standards.  The  classical  works 
though  still  regarded  with  unreasoning  reverence, 
were  found  to  have  a  germinitive  and  vivifying  power 
that  carried  the  mind  out  of  the  region  of  dogma 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  scientific  movement 
which  has  been  growing  in  strength  up  to  our  own 
day.  Two  of  the  most  important  results  of  the 
revival  of  learning  were,  indeed,  the  reawakening 
of  anatomy  which  to  a  large  extent  grew  out  of 
the  study  of  the  works  of  Galen,  and  the  investi- 
gation of  medicinal  plants,  to  which  a  fresh  impulse 
was  given  by  the  revival  of  Dioscorides  and  other 
ancient  naturalists.  It  was  at  first  naturally  imag- 
ined that  the  simple  revival  of  classical,  and  espec- 
ially Greek  literature  would  at  once  produce  the 
same  brilliant  results  in  medicine  as  in  literature 
and  philosophy.  The  movement  of  reform  started 
of  necessity  with  scholars,  rather  than  practicing 
physicians  and  surgeons,  more  precisely  with  a 
group  of  learned  men,  whom  we  may  be  permitted 
for  the  sake  of  a  name  to  call  the  medical  human- 
ists, equally  enthusiastic  in  the  cause  of  letters  and 
medicine.  From  both  fields  they  hoped  to  expel 
the  evils  which  were  summed   up  in  a  word — bar- 


122  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

barism.  Nearly  all  medieval  literature  was  con- 
demned under  this  same  name  ;  and  for  it  the 
humanists  proposed  to  substitute  the  originals  of 
Hippocrates  and  Galen,  thus  leading  back  medicine 
to  its  fountain-head.  Since  a  knowledge  of  Greek 
was  still  confined  to  a  small  body  of  scholars,  and 
a  still  smaller  proportion  of  physicians,  the  first 
task  Vv'as  to  translate  the  Greek  classics  into  Latin. 
To  this  work  Several  learned  physicians,  chiefly 
Italian,  applied* themselves  with  ardor.  Among 
the  earliest  v»'ere  Xicholus  Leonicenus  (1428- 1524); 
Giovanni  de  ^Nlonte  (149S-1552);  in  northern 
Europe  should  be  mentioned  Gulielmus  Copus 
(1471-1532)  and  Gunther,  of  Andernach  (1487- 
1584).  A  little  later  Janus  Hagenbut  (i  500-1  558) 
and  Leonard  Fuchs  (i  501-1  566),  in  Germany;  John 
Kave  (15 10-1572),  in  England,  and  Symphorien 
Champier  (1472-1539},  in  France,  carried  on  the 
work. 

"The  great  Aldine  press  made  an  important 
contribution  to  the  work  by  'editions  principles' 
of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  in  the  original.  Thus 
was  the  campaign  opened  against  medieval  (mid- 
dle age)  medical  writers,  till  finally  Greek  medi- 
cine assumed  a  predominant  position.""^ 

In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  medi- 
cal,    surgical    and     dental .  art    and    science    were 

*Hislorv  of  Medicine — Pavne. 
,    .   Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  XV.,  p.  808. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 23 

revived,  but  to  no  marked  degree.  The  ana- 
tomical research  of  Vesalius,  later  on  others,  and 
prominent  among  them  Fallopius  Eustachius, 
Pare,  Hunter  and  Fox  did  much  toward  recreating 
the  medical  art,  which  for  upwards  of  ten  centuries 
lay  dormant  and  unobserved."^ 

Indeed  it  is  comparatively  of  late  years  that  den- 
tistry has  occupied  anything  like  a  properly  recog- 
nized position  among  the  different  departments  of 
medicine;  for  we  learned  that  it  was  practiced  to  a 
large  extent  as  a  super  added  means  of  livelihood  by 
persons  engaged  in  some  other  pursuit,  and  without 
any  professional  education  or  discipline  whatever. 
Under  the  very  shadow  of  the  famous  European 
universities,  dentistry  was  professed  by  the  black- 
smith, barber,  bather,  jeweler,  silversmith,  monk 
and  even  the  cobbler.  But  matters  were  not  des- 
tined to  so  remain,  for  the  hospitable  goddess  of 
liberty  and  enlightenment,  whose  natal  day  the 
world  shall  ever  cherish,  unloosened  fetters  and 
turned  the  page  of  progress.  Educational  matters 
began  to  receive  attention  and  the  invention  of 
printing  and  the  discovery  of  America,  lead  the 
way  to  future  triumphs. 


^Anj-  Coiiiplele  Encyclopaedia. 


124  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


ADDITIONAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire — Gib- 
bon ;  Revival  of  Learning — Hallam  ;  Lost  Art — 
Arnold  ;  Renaissance — Symonds  ;  Europe  During 
the  Middle  Ages — Hallam  ;  Period  of  Revival  of 
Learning — Payne  ;  History  of  the  State  of  Rome 
in  the  Middle  *Ages — Gregorovious  ;  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Republic — Merival  ;  Revival  of  Medicine — 
^gineta  ;  Revival  of  the  Ancient  Arts  and  Scien- 
ces— Voigt  ;  Records  of  the  Reformation — Pocock; 
Ecclesiastical  Annals — Raynaldus  ;  Studies  in  the 
History  of  Renaissance — Symonds  ;  The  Reforma- 
tion— Dollinger  ;  History  of  the  Papacy  During 
the  Reformation  —  Creighton  ;  History  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church — Dowling ;  Works  on 
Printing  and  Progress  of  the  Lost  Ages — Harper.* 


*See  appendix  for  additional  notes. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 25 


EUROPEAN  DENTAL  ART. 


In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
dental  science  in  Europe  was  revived,  but  to  no 
marked  degree;  artificial  dentures  were  beginning 
to  receive  attention  and  filling  teeth  with  lead  and 
putty  opened  the  way  to  future  conquests. 

We  will  now  briefly  sketch  dental  progress 
among  the  French,  Dutch,  English,  German  and 
other  people.  In  order  to  avoid  repetition,  we 
will  treat  in  a  general  manner,  the  various  methods, 
processes  and  materials  used  in  the  several  Euro- 
pean nations,  under  the  cover  of  "European  Dental 
Art;"  and  leave  for  further  mention  those  inventions, 
discoveries  and  personalities  as  belong  particularly 
to  the  individual  country. 

To  sum  up  the  general  status  of  dentistry  as 
practiced  in  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, we  can  safely  trust  in  the  able  writer,  Dr.  F. 
Maury,  who,  in  1840,  wrote  as  follows:^  "We  shall 
not  here  enter  into  a  detail  of  the  antiquity  of 
Dental  Prosthesis,  but  will  merely  say  of  it  that  the 
polished  people  of  antiquity  paid  particular  atten- 
tion at  aM  times  to  their  teeth,  and  endeavored  to 
repair  their  loss  by  mechanical  means. 

"Whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  odontotechny 

♦Dental  Surg-ery— Maury,  p.  179. 


126  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

it  is  certain  that  this  branch  is  carried  to  a  greater 
degree  of  excellence  at  this  present  day  (1840), 
than  it  ever  attained  in  former  times,  particularly 
in  our  country  (France),  where  this  department  of 
dentistry  has  become  so  good  and  so  general  as  to 
be  considered  an  art;  the  many  advantages  of  which 
all  classes  of  society  have  felt.  It  was  Fauchard, 
who  first  in  1728,  gave  a  treatise  upon  this  subject 
(Prosthesis).  Several  French  and  foreign  works 
have  appeared  since  that  time,  and  although  incom- 
plete, they  furnish  valuable  information  upon  the 
subject  now  before  us.  They  appear  to  us  suscepti- 
ble of  important  additions,  and  if  we  cannot  flatter 
ourselves  that  we  can  furnish  a  perfect  treatise  up- 
on this  part  of  the  science  we  can  at  least  hope  to 
point  out  the  various  improvements  that  have 
recently  been  introduced. 

"The  materials  that  have  been  used  in  con- 
structing artificial  teeth  are  the  bones  and  the  teeth 
of  oxen,  horse,  sheep,  stag  and  several  other  ani- 
mals; ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  teeth  of  the  hippopot- 
amus or  sea-horse,  of  the  whale,  human  teeth, 
incorruptible  teeth,  made  of  mineral  paste.  Per- 
sons who  have  been  deprived  of  their  front  teeth, 
have  for  a  long  time  replaced  them  with  artificial 
teeth  made  of  white  wax. 

"We  shall  briefly  examine  these  various  sub- 
stances, the  number  of  which  have  been  greatly 
reduced.      We  would  however,  here  remark,    that 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  12/ 

the  teeth  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  human,  and  the 
incorruptible  teeth,  are  most  generally  used  at  the 
present  time  (1840). 

"Bones  of  the  Ox. — These  bones,  being  entirely- 
destitute  of  enamel,  bear  but  little  resemblance  to 
the  natural' teeth,  and  are  very  porous;  they  become 
yellow,  and  decompose  very  soon.  They  have, 
however,  for  a  long  time  been  used  for  fabricating 
supports  or  bases  resembling  the  gums.  For  this 
purpose  the  femur  has  been  used,  after  having  been 
cleansed  in  clay  and  exposed  to  the  dew  to  whiten. 
"Teeth  of  Oxen,  Horses,  Etc. — As  we  cannot 
give  these  the  shape  of  the  human  teeth  by  means 
of  the  file,  it  is  easy  to  detect  them  otherwise  than 
by  the  absence  of  the  enamel,  which  does  not 
cover  the  surface  of  these  teeth.  Their  color  does 
not  resemble  that  of  the  human  teeth.  If,  how- 
ever, we  are  obliged  to  use  them  from  the  want  o 
human  teeth,  we  should  choose  those  of  animals 
advanced  in  age,  because  of  their  central  cavity 
being  smaller  than  at  a  younger  period  of  life  ; 
they  are  hence  more  solid  and  better  adapted  for 
the  reception  of  pivots,  by  which  they  are  to  be 
attached  to  the  artificial  base. 

"Ivory. — Sometimes  parts  of  sets,  and  some- 
times complete  dentures  are  manufactured  of  this 
substance  ;  but,  like  the  preceding,  it  is  not  a  good 
imitation  of  the  natural  organ.  Ivory,  being  void 
of  enamel,  becomes  yellow  very  soon  in  the  mouth. 


128  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

and  the  saliva  and  mucous  decompose  it,  after  a 
time,  in  spite  of  the  care  that  may  be  taken.  In 
case  we  cannot  procure  a  substance  more  resisting, 
as  the  tooth  of  the  sea-horse,  we  should  prefer  the 
ivory  of  'young  elephants,  and  the  central  part  of 
the  tooth  near  the  poijit.  The  grain  at  this  point 
is  more  compact,  and  the  ivory  usually  lasts  longer 
than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  tooth.  Green 
ivory,  that  is,  ivory  taken  from  the  teeth  of  ani- 
mals that  have  been  recently  killed,  is  preferable. 

"]\Iother-of-Pearl. — We  need  merely  name  this 
material.  It  is  unfit  to  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  has  been  seldom  employed. 

"Hippopotamus. — The  use  of  the  tooth  of  the 
hippopotamus  in  manufacturing  teeth  is  of  recent 
date,  as  i\-ory  was,  for  a  time,  almost  exclusively 
used  ;  but  the  inconveniences  of  the  latter,  already 
named,  and  the  superiority  of  the  sea-horse  tooth, 
have  induced  dentists  to  abandon  the  use  of  ivory. 
At  the  present-  day  the  tooth  of  the  hippopotamus 
is  much  used,  both  with  and  without  the  enamel. 

"These  teeth  are  obtained  in  commerce  from 
Africa  and  the  m^ost  distant  parts  of  Asia.  Such 
as  are  least  hollowed  out  are  considered  best,  as 
their  ivory  is  more  compact  than  those  that  are 
hollow.  These  teeth  vary  much  in  size,  color, 
form  and  enamel. 

"The  incisors  of  the  hippopotamus  are  short, 
semi-cylindrical  anteriorly,  contain  a  deep  furrow, 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 29 

and  are  enveloped  with  enamel,  the  color  of  which, 
when  polished,  resembles  that  of  the  human  teeth. 
Their  semi-circular  form  enables  us  to  carve  from 
the  same  piece  several  teeth  having  enamel  upon 
them.  They  sometimes  contain  deep  furrows  by 
which  we  are  enabled  to  carve  six  or  eight  teeth 
thus  shielded  with  this  substance. 

"The  tusks  of  this  animal  are  larger  and  longer 
than  the  incisors,  and  are  curved  like  those  of  the 
wild  boar.  Their  least  weight  is  two  pounds  and 
a  half.  They  sometimes  weigh  nine  pounds,  but 
this  is  uncommon.  The  teeth  are  flattened  pos- 
teriorly, and  convex  anteriorl}-,  and  are  covered 
with  enamel  only  on  the  latter  side.  Their  size 
enables  us  to  form  complete  dentures  of  them,  not 
enameled,  or  bases  upon  which  enameled  teeth 
are  afterward  to  be  attached. 

"We  should  make  use  of  such  as  have  their 
internal  substance  compact,  white  and  smooth. 
The  best  are  white,  round,  enameled  at  their 
smallest  part,  and  have  not  large  ridges  or  deep 
depressions,  and  are  not  cracked  in  the  direction 
of  the  curvature.  To  preserve  them  they  should 
be  kept  in  a  humid  place.  When  using  them  or 
working  them,  we  should  be  careful  not  to  expose 
them  to  the  sun,  fire  or  current  air,  as  such  ex- 
posure will  tend  to  crack  them,  especially  in  such 
places  as  are  not  protected  by  the  enamel. 

"If  we  cut  a  hippopotamus'  tooth  transversely 


I30  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

through  its  middle,  we  will  perceive  a  furrow, 
whose  depth  depends  entirely  upon  the  age  of  the 
animal.  We  should  as  much  as  possible  avoid  this 
furrow  in  manufacturing  pieces.  If  its  use  cannot 
be  avoided,  the  piece  should  be  so  constructed  that 
this  defect  may  not  be  perceptible,  as  this  part  is 
yellow,  and  more  easily  acted  upon  by  the  secre- 
tions of  the  mouth. 

"However  perfect  and  beautiful  may  be  the 
piece  of  this  material  used,  its  extreme  whiteness, 
which  at  first  pleases  the  e}-e,  sooner  or  later  is  lost, 
and  a  bluish  or  yellow  hue  is  assumed. 

'  'Artificial  bases  are  generally  made  of  the  tooth 
of  the  sea-horse,  and  human  teeth  are  inserted  into 
this;  and  when  these  bases  are  neatly  carved  and 
polished,  they  present  a  very  good  appearance. 

''The  incisors  of  the  inferior  jaw  of  the  hippo- 
potamus are  called,  improperly,  in  commerce,  the 
teeth  of  the  sea-cow.  These  teeth  are  round,  and 
have  no  enamel,  and  when  they  are  of  a  proper 
size,  complete  dentures  are  manufactured  out  of  a 
single  piece  by  its  being  cut  lengthwise. 

"Teeth  of  the  Whale. — These  teeth  are  some- 
times in  commerce  mixed  with  those  of  the  sea- 
horse. They  are  as  strong  as  the  latter,  but  differ 
very  much  from  them  in  form,  and  in  their  dura- 
bility. They  may,  however,  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  bases  when  we  cannot  procure  a 
substance  more  compact. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  131 

"Human  Teeth. — Of  the  various  articles  used 
in  replacing  the  lost  organs,  the  human  teeth,  v/ith- 
out  doubt,  merit  the  preference,  since  they  are 
such  as  are  given  us  by  nature.  We  shall  indicate 
the  manner  in  Avhich  they  should  be  chosen,  and 
the  various  preparations  they  should  undergo  before 
insertion. 

"These  teeth  are  generally  obtained  from  the 
mouths  of  persons  who  die  in  hospitals,  and  whose 
bodies  are  brought  into  the  amphitheatre  for  dis- 
section. The  best  are  such  as  are  not  decayed  or 
cracked,  and  have  been  taken  from  subjects  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty  years.  The  teeth  at 
this  time  of  life  are  firm  and  of  the  most  desirable 
consistency,  and  are  capable,  for  a  long  time,  of 
resisting  the  destructive  agents  to  which  they  are 
constantly  exposed.  The  teeth  of  younger  sub- 
jects are  too  tender,  their  canal  is  to  large,  and 
they  are  incapable  of  resisting  deleterious  influences. 
Those  of  old  men  are  hard,  but  yellow  and  much 
worn,  and  crack  very  easily.  We  should  prefer 
the  teeth  of  adults  which  have  been  recently  taken 
from  the  subjects.  We  should  reject  all  such  as 
are  not  entirely  sound,  or  the  cavities  of  which  are 
red  or  black,  as  they  very  soon  become  black  in 
the  mouth  and  decay.  It  is  true,  that  if  a  cavity 
be  found  upon  the  side  of  a  tooth  used  for  this 
purpose,  w^e  may  drill  the  decay  out,  and  insert  a 
plug  made  of  the  tooth  of  the  hippopotamus;  but 


132  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

these  should  not  be  used  if  sound  ones  can  be  pro- 
cured. 

"The  teeth  being  chosen,  we  should  preserve 
them  in  such  manner  as  to  be  able  to  use  them  at 
any  moment.  They  should  be  extracted  from  the 
subject  with  care,  and  portions  of  the  alveolar  pro- 
cess, periosteum,  gum  or  tartar,  that  may  adhere 
to  them,  should  be  removed.  The  extremities  of 
their  roots  should  be  pierced,  and  they  should  be 
strung  in  the  order  in  which  they  had  been  placed 
in  the  mouth.  They  should  then  be  steeped  for 
seven  or  eight  days  in  water,  which  should  be 
changed  =every  twenty-four  hours.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  this  time,  they  should  be  again  cleaned  by 
being  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  soft  wood,  as  willow 
or  fir,  v.'et  and  dipped  in  powdered  pumice  stone. 
In  this  manner  we  can  remove  all  foreign  bodies 
from  the  teeth.  If  there  should  remain  any  stain 
or  spot,  it  should  be  removed  with  the  file  or  grind- 
stone. They  are  next  to  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  the  process  of  cleaning  is  to  be  con- 
cluded by  immersing  them  in  alcohol. 

''We  generally  use  the  eight  superior  teeth, 
viz:  four  incisors,  two  "cuspidati"  and  two  anterior 
bicuspids.  It  will  be  well,  however,  to  procure  the 
eight  corresponding  inferior  teeth,  as  they  are 
sometimes  required. 

"The  teeth,  being  thus  cleansed  and  assorted, 
should  be  placed  in  a  vase  and  covered  with  sand, 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  133 

bran,  fine  grain,  saw-dust,  or  anything  capable  of 
excluding  the  air,  heat  and  cold. 

"Some  dentists  preserve  them  in  water  or 
diluted  alcohol.  This  is  a  bad  practice,  as  they 
become  yellow  and  crack  afterward  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  Others  preserve  them  in  equal  parts  of 
wax,  chalk  and  oil;  but  this  is  inferior  to  the  simple 
mode  we  have  already  recommended.  When  we 
cannot  procure  the  eight  teeth  from  the  same  indi- 
vidual, care  should  be  taken  to  select  such  as 
harmonize  well  together.  We  should  be  cautious 
in  using  teeth  that  have  been  procured  from  ceme- 
teries; for,  after  having  remained  in  the  earth  for  a 
time,  their  enamel  is  apt  to  be  dull.  Their  bony 
substance,  also,  is  likely  to  be  yellow,  or  of  a  brown 
hue,  v/hich  is  the  result  of  decomposition.  While 
preparing  teeth  of  this  kind,  they  often  break  very 
easily,  and  when  inserted  soon  become  black  and 
decay. 

"When  we  wish  to  insert  two  or  three  of  these 
teeth,  we  adjust  them  upon  a  platina  or  gold  plate, 
if  the  alveolar  border  be  not  too  much  absorbed. 
If  this  be  the  case  they  should  be  mounted  upon  a 
sea-horse  base,  and  secured  to  it  by  means  of 
platina-rivets. 

"Animal  substances  of  which  artificial  teeth  are 
made  possess  the  inconvenience  of  being  liable  to 
a  speedy  softening  and  decomposition;  and  they 
tarnish    and    emit  a  disagreeable    odor.      We    are 


134  "^HE    RISE,    FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

therefore  obliged  to  renew  them  frequently.  To 
obviate  this  inconvenience,  it  has  been  proposed  to 
manufacture  artificial  teeth  of  earth,  capable  of  being 
hardened  b}-  means  of  heat,  and  enameled  like  por- 
celain.     These  teeth  are  called  incorruptible." 

Such,  from  the  pen  of  an  eminent  French  den- 
tist, vras  the  knowledge  of  artificial  teeth  early  in 
this  century. 

FRENCH  DENTAL  ART. 

To  the  French  scientists  and  the  people  gener- 
ally is  due  much  credit  for  having  greatly  encour- 
aged dental  art.  The  French  system  of  dentistry 
made  rapid  progress,  and  anon  England,  Germany 
and  other  European  nations  copied  nearly  exclu- 
sively from  the  French  artists.  Ambroise  Pare, 
familiarly  called  the  "barber-dentist,''  born  15 17, 
was  an  army  surgeon,  and  he  educated  himself  in 
anatomical  science,  and  in  surgery  was  one  of  the 
first  great  lights.  He  was  surgeon  successfully  to 
four  kings  of  France,  and  was  attached  to  the 
French  armies  as  surgeon-general  as  late  as  i  569. 
"To  Pare"  says  Sabine,  "we  owe  the  revival  and 
improvement  in  surgical  practice."  It  was  while 
in  the  army  in  1579,  that  he  discovered  the  possi- 
bility of  success  in  transplanting  teeth.  His  suc- 
cess in  the  ventures  proved  him  capable  and  he 
turned  his  attention  largely  to  this  new  surgical 
discovery.      He  subsequently  constructed  artificial 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  135 

dentures,  having  as  bases  gold  and  silv^er.  Pare 
exerted  a  great  influence  on  surgical  and  dental 
arts.  His  extensive  medical  and  surgical  experience 
he  published  in  1562  and  later,  the  editions  having 
been  translated  into  all  modern  languages.  In 
I  590,  Pare  died. 

Following  this  eminent  Frenchman,  came  others, 
all  of  whom  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
dentistry.  Thus  Hemard,  a  French  dentist,  manu- 
factured, in  1622,  ivory  dentures.  Petrie  Torest 
invented  the  elevator  in  1602.  Dupont,  a  Parisian 
dentist,  in  1633,  advertised  himself  as  a  specialist 
on  "Implantation  of  teeth;"  in  1735  the  French 
Academy  of  Science  announced  the  discovery  of 
caoutchouc,  which  in  various  forms  of  preparation 
was  used  by  dentists  as  a  filling  material. 

In  1728  Dr.  Fauchard,  proposed  as  substitute 
for  natural  teeth,  such  as  could  be  made  of  porce- 
lain; this,  however,  was  simply  a  key  for  some 
future  inventor,  as  the  proposed  porcelain  teeth 
were  not  yet  in  existence. 

A  curious  old  book  has  come  to  light,  pertain- 
ing to  primitive  French  dental  art;  that  the  book 
in  question  was  popular  in  its  time  is  demonstrated 
clearly  as,  in  18 16,  it  had  reached  its  fifth  edition. 
It  was  entitled:  '*A  Dissertation  on  Artificial 
Teeth"  by  M.  De  Chemant.  The  chief  point  of 
interest  in  the  book  centers  in  a  sheet  of  engrav- 
ings illustrating  the  various  types  of  dentures  which 


136  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

M.  De  Chemant,  was  prepared  to  supply  to  his 
patients.  He  here  clearly  portrays  a  porcelain 
bridge  of  ten  teeth  supported  by  four  pivots,  by 
which  it  is  fastened  to  the  remaining  roots  of  the 
jaw.  A  simple  tooth  from  this  ingenious  bridge, 
would  be  a  true  representation  of  what  we  Ameri- 
cans call  a  Logan  crown.  'SI.  De  Chemant  speaks 
of  these  teeth  as  his  invention  and  records  the  cir- 
cumstance ;  and  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  students 
of  primitive  Dental  Prosthesis  will  give  his  own 
words  on  the  subject: 

"In  1788,  when  I  exercised  the  profession  of  a 
surgeon,  I  was  consulted  by  a  lady  who  had  fallen 
into  such  a  state  of  weakness  as  produced  consider- 
able fears  of  her  life.  On  approaching  her  I  per- 
ceived a  tainted  odor  which  I  thought  proceeded 
from  her  lungs,  or  her  teeth  which  were  black.  I 
examined  her  mouth  and  was  struck  with  the  bad 
state  of  a  set  of  human  teeth  implanted  on  the 
base  of  a  tooth  of  the  hippopotamus.  This  set  of 
teeth  removed,  I  perceived  her  mouth  to  be  almost 
entirely  covered  with  small  ulcers,  and  I  had  no 
doubt  that  her  disease  was  the  effect  of  the  putrid 
exhalations  which  proceeded  from  the  set  of  teeth, 
and  which  corrupted  the  air  she  breathed  ;  what 
confirmed  this  conjecture  was,  that  after  having 
laid  these  teeth  aside  her  health  improved  in  a  few 
days.      Perceiving    that    this    lady    would    not    do 

♦Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XIII.,  p.  12. 


PLATE    II. 


Specimens   of    Medieval    Deqtal    Art. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  139 

without  artificial  teeth,  I  advised  her  to  have 
several  sets  of  teeth  at  the  same  time,  so  that  she 
might  change  them  often  after  having  washed  and 
let  them  dry.  She  did  so,  and  her  health  became 
re-established  in  the  course  of  some  months.  But 
as  the  teeth  of  this  kind  required  to  be  renewed 
frequently  they  occasioned  a  great  expense,  and 
notwithstanding  their  frequent  renewal  they 
always  produced  a  bad  smell.  I  was  induced  from 
that  time  to  reflect  on  the  possibility  and  means 
of  making  teeth  and  sets  of  teeth  of  durable  and 
incorruptible  materials.  I  examined  almost  all  the 
substances  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  at  length 
composed  a  paste  which,  when  it  was  baked  (por- 
celain) had  every  desirable  advantage." 

Now  as  a  matter  of  fact,  porcelain  teeth  were 
invented  by  an  apothecary  of  St.  Germain,  Ducha- 
teau^  by  name.  He  himselfwore  an  artificial  denture 
of  ivory  and  natural  teeth,  but  found  they  rapidly 
became  tainted  by  the  various  disagreeable  odors 
emanating  from  his  mouth,  the  porous  animal  sub- 
stances becoming  rapidly  impregnated  by  the 
efifluvia.  This  druggist  called  the  attention  of  Mr. 
Guerard  to  the  discovery  of  a  paste  which,  when 
baked,  became  very  hard.  The  latter  gentleman 
undertook  in  1776  to  manufacture  the  substance 
and  with  the  aid  of  a  dentist  produced  a  porcelain 
tooth. 

♦Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XIII.,  p.  13. 


140  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

But  to  De  Chemant  is  due  the  credit  of  per- 
fecting the  discovery  or  invention  ;  he  bought  the 
right  from  the  former  and  managed  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  French  Academy  of  Science,  which 
at  once  appointed  a  sub-committee  to  examine  the 
teeth  and  their  merits.  The  com.mittee  reported 
favorably,  at  the  same  time  informing  M.  De  Che- 
mant where  improvements  were  needed,  and  with 
the  aid  of  -M.  Dubois,  dentist,  the  new  substance 
(porcelain)  was  considerably  improved. 

In  1805,  Professor  Lafargue  published  a  book 
on  the  practice  and  art  of  dentistry.  Dr.  Debarre 
is  another  early  dental  practitioner  who  deserves 
much  praise,  since  he  early  in  the  century  published 
a  volume  called  "Prosthetic  Dentistry."  This  is  the 
first  book  devoted  especially  to  this  great  branch 
of  dental  science.  This  rare  work  was  considered 
superb  and  contained  forty-two  v.-ell  executed 
plates.  Subsequently  to  Dr.  Debarre's  volume, 
many  publications  appeared  in  the  French  book 
market. 

In  1808,  Fronzi,'^  a  French  dentist,  constructed 
a  single  enameled  tooth  to  be  eventually  arranged 
together  in  an  entire  set;  he  did  great  service  in 
improving  enameled  teeth. 

It  is  claimed  by  modern  dentists  that  Dr. 
Fauchard,  of  France,  in  1785,  was  the  first  doctor 
to  refer  to  gold-leaf  as  a  filling  material;  and  Dr. 

tDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.  671. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  I4I 

Harris,"^  of  America,  is  responsible  for  the  state- 
ment that  gold-leaf  was  first  used  for  filling  pur- 
poses in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
This  on  close  investigation  proves  to  be  a  mistake, 
as  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  many  pages  of  this 
work. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  French  authors,  who 
had  contributed  to  dental  literature,  prior  to  the 
year  1800. 

Andree,  1784,  1790;  Apius,  175 1;  Aurivillius, 
1757;  Auzebi,  1771;  Bauhinus,  1660;  Eeaupreau, 
1764;  Botot,  1786,  1789;  Bourdet,  1756,  1762, 
1764;  Brendel,  1697;  Bunon,  1741,  1743,  1746; 
Courtois,  1775,  1778;  Cransius,  1681;  Cumme, 
1716;  Delabarre,  1800;  Despre,  1720;  Dubois  De 
Chemant,  1789,  1790,  1796;  Duchmin,  1759;  Du- 
pont,  1633;  Fauchard,  1786;  Finot,  1799;  Fleuri- 
mon,  1682;  Fronzi,  1798;  Fouchon,  1775;  Frank, 
1692;  Geraudly,  1737;  Gilles,  1622;  Grun,  1795; 
Hemard,  1582;  Heslopp,  1700;  Hilscher,  1748, 
1776;  Josse,  1800;  Jourdan,  1761,  1766,  1756; 
Lecluse,  1750,  1753,  1782;  Lemaire,  1784;  Monier, 
1783;  Mouton,   1786;  Ricci,   1790." 

These  works  were  purely  dental  and  this  por- 
trays how  industrious  and  persevering  the  French 
scientists  were  relative  to  dentistry.  The  French 
have  indeed  done  much  toward  establishing  dental 

♦Harris'  Principles  and  Practices  of  Dentistrj-. 


142  THE    RISE.   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

literature,  and  the  numerous  dental  journals  pub- 
lished in  France  since  1857  go  to  verify  this.  The 
following  are  the  names  of  the  dental  periodicals 
issued  in  the  French  language:^ 

L'Art  Dentaire,  founded  1857,  Paris — Editors, 
Fowler  and  Pereterre. 

Le  Progress  Dentaire,  founded  1874.  Paris — • 
Editor,  Stevens. 

Le  Cosmos  Dentaire,  founded  1876,  Paris — 
Translated  from  American  Dental  Cosmos. 

Gazette  Odontologique,  founded  1879,  Paris — ■ 
Editor  not  mentioned. 

Annuarie  Generale  Desdenteste,  founded  1880, 
Paris — Editor  not  mentioned. 

L'Odontologie,  founded  1880,  Paris — Editor, 
Anbeau. 

Revue  Odontologique,  founded  1880,  Paris — ■ 
Editors,  Andrieu,  Brasseur  Damain,  Gailland, 
Stevens,  Colson  and  Ouenot. 

Revue  Mensuelle  des  Maladies  de  la  bouche — 
Editor,  Saran. 

Revue  Odontolgia,  founded  1882,  Paris — Con- 
tumation  of  Gazette  Odontologique,  edited  by 
Association  Committee. 

Le  Monde  Dentaire,  founded  since  1885,  Paris 
— Editor,  Rollin. 


*These  g-entlemen  have  assisted  me  in  getting-  a  complete  list  of 
French  journals:  E.  Kirk,  J.  Taft,  H.  J.  McKellops,  A.  W.  Harlan, 
L.  Ottofj'. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 43 

Gazette  Odontologique  de  France,  founded 
1884,  Paris — Editor,  Quincrot. 

Revue  International  d'Odontolgique,  founded 
1889,  Paris — Editors,  Dubois  and  Committee. 

L'Avenir  Dentarie,  founded  1890,  Paris-*-Edi- 
tor,  Delannay. 

France  is  not  noted  for  the  number  of  her  den- 
tal colleges,  but  for  the  high  standard  of  these 
institutions.  The  two  dental  colleges  which  France 
has  are  both  located  in  Paris  and  their  names  are: 
Institut  Odontotechnique  and  Ecule  Dentaire  de 
Paris.  "^ 

DUTCH    DENTAL   ART. 

The  worldly  matters  of  the  fifteenth  century 
were  largely  influenced  by  the  Dutch  people,  who 
at  this  period  of  time  were  recognized  among  the 
leading  spirits  of  the  age.  The  Dutch  territory, 
though  small,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
neighboring  countries.  Dutch  vessels  bathed  in 
all  the  waters  of  the  earth  and  early  bore  the 
honor  of  having  the  most  formidable  maritime 
power  in  the  world.  The  people  were  no  less 
active  in  educational  matters,  for  we  read  that  her 
schools  of  art  attracted  the  attention  of  civilized 
Europe.  In  medicine  particularly  they  stood  as 
authority.  These  people  were  the  first  in  modern 
history  to  introduce  clinical  instruction  in  hospitals, 

♦The  author  is  indebted   to  Dr.  A.  W.  Harlan  for  information  rela- 
tive to  dental  education  in  France. 


144  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

and  this  departure  was  greatly  developed,  especi- 
ally at  Leyden  in  the  hands  of  the  celebrated 
Sylvius,  who  attracted  students  from  all  quarters 
of  Europe.  Soon  the  Dutch  medical  school  be- 
came the  most  famous  of  the  century.  In  den- 
tistry, too,  the  already  celebrated  medical  pro- 
fessors made  advances,  thus  Andre  Vesalius,  a 
celebrated  physician  at  Brussels  in  1563,  was  the 
first  to  practice  scarification  of  the  gums,  which  he 
did  on  himself  in  order  to  facilitate  the  eruption  of 
a  wisdom  tooth.  In  1674  Nicholas  Pulpius  experi- 
mented largely  with  treatments  for  odontolgia  and 
other  dental  affecttons.  The  famous  naturalist, 
Lieuwenhock,  in  1678  discovered  the  tubuli  of 
dentine.  And  among  those  who  strictly  wrote  on 
dental  subjects  prior  to  1800  were:  Brauer,  1692; 
Nicholi,  1799;  Van  Der  Belen,  1782;  Van  Der 
Maessen,  1800;  Van  Veen,  1789;  Valentine,  1727. 
The  Dutch  people  from  1790  until  within  a  gener- 
ation ago  suffered  retrogression  in  educational 
matters,  and  the  few  strides  of  progress  gained  in 
the  preceding  centuries  was  forgotten  and  nearly 
entirely  lost.  A  new  era,  however,  has  dawned, 
and  education  and  learning  is  rapidly  being 
revived. 

Dental  societies  early  in  the  last  century  were 
organized,  the  Societe  Odontologique  de  Belgique 
being  the  senior  ;  dental  journals  were  late  in  their 
appearance,  but  of  late  have  been  founded. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  I45 

Revue  Odontologique  de  Bruxells,  founded 
1884. 

Revue  Odontalogique  dc  Belgique,  founded 
1885. 

Dentistry  at  the  present  time  receives  marked 
attention,  the  prosthetic  department  taking  the 
lead.  Their  schools  of  dentistry  are  institutes 
rather  than  colleges. 

ENGLISH    DENTAL    ART. 

The  English  people  who  were  the  prime  fac- 
tors in  the  medieval  and  early  modern  history,  not 
only  shaped  the  destinies  of  '  men,  manners  and 
nations,'  but  trades,  occupations  and  professions 
also  fell  heir  to  their  undaunted  power  and  in- 
fluence. Although  dental  art  was  revived  in 
France  it  still  required  English  talent  to  start  the 
same  on  the  highway  of  a  profession.  Prominent 
among  the  many  medical  students  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  who  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
revival  of  medicine  and  surgery  are  Sydenham 
Hunter,  Fox  and  Blake.  Thomas  Sydenham  was 
a  graduate  from  Oxford  and  early  demonstrated 
his  genius.  He  entered  the  medical  field  and  was 
known  to  be  the  most  accomplished  scholar  in 
England  on  ancient  medicines.  As  his  model  in 
medical  methods,  he  repeatedly  and  pointedly 
referred  to  Hippocrates,  and  he  has  not  unfairly  been 
known  as  the  * '  English  Hippocrates. "    His  influence 


146  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

on  European  medicine  was  great;  his  principles 
were  welcomed  as  a  return  to  nature  by  those  who 
were  weary  of  theoretical  disputes.  He  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  specific  medicine,  and  on  this 
latter  principle  rests  his  fame.  His  knowledge  of 
anatomy,  physiology  and  therapeutics,  inspired 
others  to  delve  into  these  sciences,  and  thus  indi- 
rectly Sydenham  deserves  much  credit  for  having 
brought  about  the  revival  of  ''natural  history  of 
diseases."  Private  dissecting  rooms  and  anatom- 
ical theatres  were  established,  of  which,  perhaps, 
the  most  noted  was  Dr.  William  Hunter's  school, 
London,  inasmuch  as  it  attracted  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  British  Empire;  it  was  in  this 
school  that  the  famous  John  Hunter  received  his 
first  anatomical  instructions.  His  brother  William, 
with  whom  he  was  intimately  associated,  was  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  exponents  of  medical  science 
in  England  at  that  period.  Under  such  eminent 
care,  John  made  rapid  progress,  and  before  a  score 
of  years  had  rolled  away  he  was  the  most  famous 
physiologist  and  lecturer  on  surgery  in  the  world. 
The  dental  profession  of  England  particularly 
cherish  his  name,  since  in  his  work  "Natural  His- 
tory of  the  Human  Teeth,"  a  treatise  written  and 
published  in  1 771,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
English  system  of  dental  practice,  from  which  the 
known  world  copied.  Hunter,  however,  treated 
the  subject  anatomically  and  philosophically,  rather 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 47 

than  practically;  the  same  may  be  said  of  nearly 
all  the  writers  on  this  subject  of  that  period.  It 
would  require  many  pages  to  merely  enumerate  the 
items  of  dental  interest  which  are  found  in  the 
works  of  Hunter,  and  it  is  doing  him  but  partial 
justice  to  call  him  "Father  of  Modern  Dental 
Surgery."  Subsequent  to  the  writings  of  Hunter 
came  those  of  Blake,  in  1798;  and  closely  following 
in  the  footpath  of  the  latter,  came  Dr.  Fox  of  1803. 

These  works,  however,  were  not  the  first  pub- 
lished in  England  on  Dentistry  ;  the  following  are 
authors  who,  prior  to  1800,  furnished  material  for 
the  English  dental  literature:  Berdmore,  1770; 
Curtis,  1769;  Herbert,  1778;  Hurlok,  1742;  Lewis, 
1772;  Ruspin,  1779;  Timaeus,  1769;  Tolver,  1752; 
TuUer,  1800;  Walkey,  1793  and  Woofendale,  1788. 

We  learned  in  the  preceding  chapter  how  and 
why  dental  art  was  revived  and  also  the  result 
of  the  struggle  between  the  barbers  and  dentists. 
We  are  told  that  the  earliest  reference  in  modern 
times  to  the  practitioner  of  dental  surgery,  as  a 
dentist  occurs  in  the  Manchester  (England)  Times, 
in  the  later  part  of  1600.  The  following  is  the 
complete  item  in  which  the  word  dentist  appears: 
"We  are  told  that  a  clergyman  who  had  taken 
temporary  duty  for  a  friend  among  us,  and  who  had 
the  ill  luck  to  injure  his  false  teeth  during  the  week, 
the  plate  was  sent  to  the  dentist  for  repairs,  a 
faithful   assurance   being   given   that    it   should  be 


148  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

duly  returned  by  Sunday's  post;  but  the  dentist  or 
the  post  proved  faithless.  With  the  assistance 
of  the  clerk  the  clergyman  managed  to  stumble 
through  the  prayers  but  felt  it  would  be  useless  to 
attempt  to  preach.  He  therefore  instructed  the 
clerk  to  'make  some  excuse  ft>r  him  and  dismiss 
the  congregation. '  But  the  feelings  of  the  Reverend 
may  be  better  imagined  than  described  when,  in 
seclusion  of  the  vestry,  he  overheard  the  clerk  in 
impressive  tones,  thus  deliver  the  'excuse:'  'Par- 
son's very  sorry,  but  it  is  his  misfortune  to  be 
obliged  to  wear  a  set  of  artificial  teeth.  They 
busted  last  Wednesday,  and  he  ain't  got  them  back 
from  London  to-day  as  he  was  promised.  I've 
helped  him  all  I  could  through  the  service,  but  I 
can't  do  no  more  for  him.  It  isn't  any  use  him 
coming  out  of  there  (pointing  to  vestry)  and  going 
into  the  pulpit,  for  you  wouldn't  understand  a  word 
he  said,  so  he  thinks  you  may  as  well  go  home." 

Among  the  first  men  in  England  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  dentist  was  Thomas  Berdmore,  dentist 
to  King  George  III. ;  he  was  an  accomplished  den- 
tist, and  in  1770  wrote  and  published  his  ''Treatise 
on  the  Disorders  and  Deformities  of  the  Teeth  and 
Gums — Illustrated  with  Cases  and  Experiments." 
Dr.  Berdmore  has  the  honor  of  being  the  first  den- 
tist to  be  employed  as  such  in  the  royal  family. 
In  his  leisure  he  taught  many  medical  students 
who  desired  to   practice   dentistry  as  a  specialty; 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  I49 

the  famous  John  Woofendale  having  been  one  of 
his  pupils.*  Transplantation  of  teeth  seemed  to  be 
a  subject  in  which  Dr.  Berdmore  was  deeply  inter- 
ested and  he  is  recorded  as  having  been  quite  suc- 
cessful in  this  departure.  He  said  on  the  matter 
that  "The  surgeons'  art  has  taught  that  a  tooth 
which  has  been  partially  or  totally  forced  out  of  its 
socket  may  again  be  restored  to  its  former  situation 
and  firmness,  and  may  serve  for  use  and  ornament 
to  the  last  period  of  life."  And  further  *Tn  the  most 
favorable  circumstances  it  is  more  than  an  equal 
chance  that  a  tooth  once  extracted  or  beat  out 
will  fastened  again,  "t 

In  a  work  published  in  1774  by  M.  Patence,  a 
dentist  of  London,  there  is  the  following  on  the 
same  subject:  "Of  late  it  has  been  the  practice  to 
extract  a  tooth  from  the  mouth  of  some  poor  per- 
sons and  transplant  into  the  socket  of  others  for  a 
few  shillings.  ".|  Lefoule  adds  '  'It  is  selfishness  of  the 
rich  who  would  deprive  the  poor  of  their  teeth  to 
replace  their  own.":]: 

The  manner  in  which  the  operation  was  per- 
formed we  gather  from'  Dr.  Hunters'  work,  "The 
Natural  History  of  the  Teeth:"  "A  fresh  tooth 
when  transplanted  from  one  socket  to  another, 
becomes  to  all  appearances  a  part  of  that  body  to 

♦Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  5. 
rDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XIX.,  p.  261. 
Johnsons'  Dental  Miscellan}',  September,  1876. 
tDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XIX.,  p.  261. 


150  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

which  it  is  now  attached,  as  much  as  it  was  to  the 
one  from  which  it  was  taken;  while  a  tooth  which 
has  been  extracted  for  some  time,  so  as  to  lose  the 
whole  of  its  life,  will  never  become  firm  and  fixed; 
the  sockets  will  also  in  this  case  acquire  the  dispo- 
sition to  fill  up,  which  they  do  not  do  in  case  of  the 
insertion  of  a  fresh  tooth.  I  would  recommend  to 
every  dentist  to  have  some  dead  teeth  at  hand, 
that  he  may  have  a  chance  to  fit  the  socket.  I 
have  known  these,  sometimes  to  last  for  years, 
especially  when  well  supported  by  neighboring^ 
teeth.  But  even  this  should  not  be  attempted  un- 
less the  socket  is  sound  and  pretty  large,  as  the 
tooth  can  otherwise  have  but  little  hold."* 

From  various  advertisements  in  English  papers^ 
we  can  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  general  status  of 
English  dentistry  in  the  latter  part  of  1700.  The 
following  of  1 769  has:  "M.  Hamelton,  Surgeon-Den- 
tist and  Operator  for  the  teeth,  from  London,  who 
cleans  and  beautifies  the  teeth  and  displaces  all 
superfluous  teeth  and  stumps,  with  the  greatest 
ease  and  safety,  and  makes  and  sets  artificial  teeth 
from  one  single  tooth  to  a  whole  set  in  so  nice  a 
manner  that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the 
natural."  t 

We  can  form  some  idea  how  awkward  and  unbe- 
coming the  dentures  of  these  days  were,  when  we 

*Hunter,  vol.  I.,  p.  58,  vol.  II.,  p.  95. 
tDental  Cosmos,  vol,  XVIII.,  p.  542. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  151 

read  in  Sheridan's,  The  Duenna,  Act  II.,  Sec,  3, 
these  lines:  ''For  her  teeth, ■^"  where  there  is  one  of 
ivory,  its  neighbor  is  pure  ebony,  black  and  white 
alternately,  just  like  the  keys  of  the  harpsichord." 
The  following  from  the  pen  of  George  C. 
Chance,  t  is  of  interest  to  those  who  desire  a  general 
idea  of  dental  practice  in  the  sevententh  cen- 
tury: **In  a  recent  visit  to  London  I  was  permitted 
to  copy  from  an  almanac,  now  in  the  possession  of 
James  Parkinson,  dentist,  London,  the  following 
advertisement,  which  appeared  in  the  Stationers' 
Hall  Sheet,  in  1709,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Ann: 
*  Sets  of  teeth  set  in  so  well  as  to  eat  withal  and  be 
worn  years  together  undiscovered.  Also  teeth 
cleaned  and  drawn  by  John  Watts,  operator;  he 
applying  himself  'wholly'  to  the  business.'  The 
John  Watts  of  the  above  advertisement,  was  a 
partner  of  Thomas  Berdmore,  who  held  the  ap- 
pointment of  dentist  to  the  royal  family,  which 
appointment  was  subsequently  held  in  succession 
by  Mr.  Parkinson's  grandfather,  his  son  and  grand- 
son, and  then  the  appointment  passed  away.  These 
all  practiced  their  profession  in  the  same  house,  in 
Regent  Court.  Mr.  Parkinson  being  the  last  pro- 
prietor, disproved  of  the  old  house  in  1858.  The 
entries  selected  from  his  ledger  of   1789  (in  which 


♦Popular  Quotations  and  Mythology-— Carleton,  p.  170. 
tDental  Cosmos,  vol.  XVI.,  p.  107. 


152  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

year    the     gross     receipts     of    the    business    were 
;^2,886  or  about  $14,430),  read: 

'  '  'One  tooth  leaded $   2.  50 

One  tooth  gold-stopped 4-9^ 

One  new  pivot  tooth 4-96 

Seventeen  teeth  drawn. 

Gold  plate  for  lower  front  teeth. 

One   impression  taken. 

Gold  plate  one  tooth. 

Two  teeth  stopped  with  gold. 

Tooth  drawn  and  replaced. 

Four  natural  teeth  put  on  plate. 

Upper  artifical  set  complete.  .  .  52.50  "  ' 
The  English  dentists  early  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  periodical  literature,  though  they  may  not 
be  able  to  boast  of  the  number  of  their  journals, 
yet  the  standard  of  what  few  they  have,  is  par  ex- 
cellence. These  are  the  professional  journals  of 
Great  Britain  -r 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  founded 
1843,  London — Editor,  James  Robinson.  Discon- 
tined  after  .1886. 

The  British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  founded 
1856,  London — Editors,  W.  Blundell,  Tomes, 
Begg,  Harrison,  Cartwright,  Saunders  and  Fox. 
Still  issued. 

The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Dental  Science  (N.  S. , ) 
founded,    London,    1857 — Editors,    Rhymer,    Per- 

*The  following  dentists  assisted  me  in  completing-  this  list:     Drs.  J. 
Taft,  E.  Kirk,  H.  J.  McKellops  and  L.  Oltofy. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  153 

kins,     Thompson     and     Robinson.       Discontinued 
after   1859. 

The  Dental  Review,  founded,  London,  1858 — 
Editors,  Rhymer  and  Hockley.  Discontinued 
after  1864. 

The  Dental  Review,  New  Series,  founded  1864, 
London — Editors,  Hockley  &  Rhymer.  Discon- 
tinued after   1886. 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  founded,  1865,  London 
— Editor  E.  Truman.      Discontinued  after  1886. 

Journal  of  British  Dental  Association,  founded, 
1880 — Editors'  names  not  given.  Still  regularly 
issued. 

The  Dental  Record,  founded  1881,  London — 
Editors'  names  not  mentioned.      Still  published. 

There  are  numerous  English  dental  societies 
the  most  noteworthy  of  which  is  the  well  known 
Odontological  Society  of  Great  Britain,  founded  in 
1867. 

Dental  education  in  England  has,  and  is  yet 
receiving  great  encouragement.  In  1859  a  Col- 
lege of  Dentists  was  established,  which  was  sub- 
sequently abandoned  in  favor  of  the  L.  D.  S.  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  The  nonpareil 
development  of  dental  art  and  science  in  England 
is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  number,  generally 
fair  standing  and  good  quality  of  their  dental 
schools,  devoted  to  educating  young  men  for 
the    profession.      Although     there     are    but     few 


154  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

schools  devoted  exclusively  to  instruction  in  den- 
tistry, those  that  deserve  a  special  mention  are: 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  dental  department; 
King's  College,  dental  department;  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  Edinburg,  dental  department  ; 
Owen's  College  Victoria  University,  dental  depart- 
ment; National  Dental  Hospital  and  College; 
Guy's  Hospital  Dental  School ;  Dental  Hospital  of 
London,  and  Dental  Hospital  of  London  Medical 
School  ;  The  Queen's  College,  dental  department  ; 
Dublin  Dental  Hospital  ;  Edinburg  Dental  Hos- 
pital and  School  ;  Exeter  Dental  Hospital  ;  Glas- 
gow Dental  Hospital  and  School  ;  Liverpool  Uni- 
versity, dental  department  ;  Plymouth  Dental 
Hospital  and  School. 

There  are  also  dental  infirmaries  connected 
with  the  following  hospitals:  Charing  Cross, 
London,  Middlesex,  St.  Bartholomew,  St.  George, 
St.  Mary,  St.  Thomas,  University  College  and 
Westminster. 

The  difficulty  in  establishing  dental  colleges 
in  England  seems  to  be  their  dependence  upon  the 
universities  on  one  hand,  and  the  meddling  of  the 
government  on  the  other.  This  at  first  thought  may 
seem  to  be  detrimental  to  the  rapid  progress  and 
advancement  of  dentistry,  yet  by  reflection  we 
learn  that  a  thorough  preliminary  education  is 
required  before  entrance  to  the  several  universities, 
and  thus  the  title  of  L.  D.  S.  (Scentiate  of   Dental 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  I  55 

Surgery)  is  conferred  on  intelligent  men  only,  and 
this  correct  method  of  creating  doctors  must  ever 
have  an  ennobling  influence  on  the  profession  at 
large.* 

GERMAN    DENTAL    ART. 

The  German  people  it  seems,  were  reluctant 
about  accepting  the  true  worth  of  dentistry,  either 
as  an  art  or  science.  Their  neighboring  people 
had  already  acquired  the  knowledge  necessary  for 
the  care  of  the  dental  organs,  and  foreign  dentists 
made  no  impression  on  the  stern  teutonics.  Ger- 
many was  truly  the  home  of  the  barber-surgeon, 
and  even  up  to  this  late  century  the  tonsors  are 
looked  up  to  as  the  proper  dental  surgeons.  It  is 
most  surprising  that  a  people  like  the  Germans  who 
exerted  such  a  wonderful  influence  on  all  the  arts 
and  sciences,  should  so  long  remain  dormant  on  a 
subject  so  highly  interesting  to  humanity  as  den- 
tistry. It  has  been  said  that  the  German  students, 
scientists  and  philosophers  devoted  their  energies 
in  the  study  of  all  things  foreign  to  man  himself — 
and  when  we  view  the  condition  of  the  art  of  den- 
tistry in  1 700  we  are  lead  to  strongly  believe  in  the 
charge  made.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
Germans  were  late  in  appreciating  the  laws  of  den- 
tal preservation,  lost  time  was  seemingly  regained 
through  earnest  study  and  German  perseverance. 

♦We   win   speak  of  Canadian  dental  progress   In  connection   with 
the  advances  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


156  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Dental  progress  in  German  can  be  briefly  told,  since 
it  is  of  recent  development. 

To  a  German  dentist.  Dr.  Mesue  by  name,  we 
should  be  grateful  for  re-inventing  the  process  of 
filling  teeth  with  gold-leaf.  A  German  volume 
published  in  Frankfort  in  1541,  entitled:  "Medicine 
for  the  Teeth,  etc.,"  conclusively  demonstrates  this 
point  as  follows: 

"  Corrosio  is  a  disease  of  the  teeth  when  they 
get  holes  and  hollows,  happening  mostly  to  the 
molar  teeth,  especially  if  they  do  not  get  cleaned 
after  eating;  for  the  victuals  adhere,  decay,  produce 
bad,  acrid  fluids,  that  eat  and  itch  into  the  teeth,  and 
keep  on  doing  so,  until  the  teeth  are  entirely  de- 
stroyed and  one  piece  after  another  must,  not  with- 
out pain,  drop  off. 

"This  condition,"  according  to  Mesue,  "is 
stopped  and  cured  in  three  different  ways  :  First,  by 
purging  ;  secondly,  by  destroying  the  matter  that 
hollows  them  out  and  eats  them  away  ;  this  is  done 
by  boiling  cockle,  that  grows  in  rye  and  wheat,  with 
vinegar,  and  holding  it  in  the  mouth,  or  with  vine- 
gar in  which  capers-root  with  ginger  is  boiled. 
Thirdly,  by  getting  rid  of  the  hollow,  which  may 
be  done  in  two  ways:  The  first  is  to  scratch  and 
clean  with  a  fine  chisel,  knife,  file,  or  with  any 
other  instrument  fit  for  it,  the  hollow  and  the  parts 
attacked,  and  fill  with  gold-leaves,  for  the  preser- 
vation  of  the  remaining  part  of  the  tooth.      The 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  I  57 

second  is  to  use  medicine,  which  is  done  by  filling 
the  teeth,  after  cleaning,  with  gall-nut  and  wild 
gallows-wood.  Or,  take  henbane-seed  mixed  with 
gum  storax,  and  make  with  it  a  smoke  through  a 
funnel  into  the  hollow  tooth.  Or  galbanum  laid 
on  hollow  teeth  mitigates  the  pains.  The  pains 
are  also  quieted  if  the  hollow  teeth  are  filled  with 
oppoponacum." 

We  learn  that  Frederick  the  Great  employed 
the  service  of  what  he  called  a  "Zahnarzt  "  (dentist) 
and  this  worthy  gentleiiian's  name  was  Pfaff."^  He 
was  not  educated  in  the  purely  prosthetic  depart- 
ment and  an  appropriate  name  would  have  been 
"mechanical-dentist."  The  only  thing  Herr  Pfaff 
can  be  remembered  for  is  the  fact  that  he  is  the 
first  dentist  to  describe  a  plaster-model  of  the 
mouth,  and  occurs  among  his  private  papers 
dated  1756. 

Prior  to  the  year  1800  there  were  published 
scores  of  works  devoted  to  dental  science,  and 
among  these  the  following:  Naehere  Pruefung  der 
Etiologie  der  Zahnarbeit — Blumenthal,  1799;  Ein- 
leitung  zu  den  Wissenschaften  eines  Zahnarztes — 
Brunner,  1771;  Zahnschmerzen — Glaubrecht,  1766; 
Praktische  Darstellung  aller  Operationen  der 
Zahnarzneikunst — Jeron,  1800;  Sicherer  Augen- 
und  Zahnarzt — Krautermann^  1793  ;  Belehrungen 
von  der  Wirkung   electrischer  Erschuetterung  im 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXIII.,  p.  671. 


158  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Zahnweh — Lentin,  1756;  Abhandlung  von  den 
gewoehnlichen  Zahnkrankheiten — Meyer,  1778  ; 
Zahnfleisches  und  der  Kiefer  Krankheiten  und 
Heilart — Pasch,  1767;  und  Behandlung  der 
Zaehne — Mesue,    1541.^ 

When  the  German  people  did  wake  up  to  the 
usefulness  of  the  dental  organs  they  seemed  over 
anxious  to  demonstrate  to  the  world  that  although 
last  to  acknowledge  dentistry  as  a  healing  art  they 
like  the  Holy  book  tells  **the  last  shall  come  first." 
Dental  journals  immediately  sprung  into  existence 
and  did  eminent  service  to  the  dental  profession 
in  Europe.      A  list  of  their  periodicals  reads  : 

Der  Zahnarzt,  founded  1855,  Leipzig — Editor, 
Schmedicke.      Discontinued  in  1856. 

Deutsche  Vierteljahrsschrift,  founded  in  1861 — 
Editors,  Xedden  and  Heider.  Discontinued  in 
1862  and  published  as: 

Deutsche  INIonatsschrift  fuer  Zahnheilkunde, 
founded  in  1862,  Leipzig — Editors,  Baume  and 
Stolper. 

Correspondenz-Blatt  fuer  Zahnaerzte,  founded 
in  1 87 1 — Editors'  names  not  given.  Still  pub- 
lished. 

Zahnaertzlicher  Almanach,  founded  in  1876 — 
Editor,  A.  Peterman. 

Notizen-Kalender,fuer  Zahnaerzte,  founded  in 
1877 — Editor,  Safford.      Discontinued  in  1880. 

•Maury's  Dental  Art,  p.  267. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 59 

Der  ZahnaerztHche  Bote,  founded  in  1879 — 
Editor's  name  not  given.     Discontinued  after  1886. 

Die  Zahntechnische  Reform,  founded  in  1881 
— Editor,  Pawelz.      Still  issued. 

Vierteljahrsschrift  des  Vereins  Deutcher  Zahn- 
kuenstler,  founded  in  1881 — Editor,  Jantsch  and 
Polscher.     Discontinued  in  1883  and  published  as: 

Deutsche  Monatsschrift  fuer  Zahnheilkunde, 
founded  in  1883 — Editor,  Parreidt. 

Centralblatt  fuer  Zahnheilkunde,  founded  in 
1883 — Editor,    Goldstein.      Discontinued  in   1886. 

Zahnaerztliches  Wochenblatt,  weekly,  founded 
— Editor  Andreae.      Still  published. 

Journal  fuer  Zahnheilkunde,  weekly,  founded 
in  1889 — Editor,  Richter. 

Relative  to  their  schools  the  eminent  dentist, 
Prof.  Miller,  of  Berlin,  says:-  "In  1869  a  law  was 
enacted  in  Germany  which  in  effect  entitled  any 
one  to  practice  medicine  or  any  specialty  of  medi- 
cine without  any  qualification  whatever.  While 
this  law  did  not  affect  the  practice  of  medicine,  it 
had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  practice  of  dentistry. 
A  class  of  'teeth-artists'  appeared  who  entered 
upon  the  practice  of  dentistry  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  mechanic.  At  the  present  time,  while  there 
are  not  more  than  one  thousand  qualified  practi- 
tioners, there  are  four  or  five  times  that  many  who 
have  no  qualifications  except  such  chance  informa- 

♦Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXXII.,  p.  992. 


l6o  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

tion  as  had  been  picked  up.      Some  of  these  men 
become  skillful  in  mechanical  directions  and  com- 
pete  successfully  with   men   who   have   graduated 
from    dental    colleges.      It    is    only   within    recent 
years  that  dental  students  received  instruction  in 
practical  dentistry.      Formerly  they  were  launched 
upon  the  world  utterly  unprepared,  and   therefore 
the  'teeth-mechanics'  were   able   to   compete  with 
the  graduates.      This  has  had  the  effect  of  stimu- 
lating the  dentists  to  better  qualify  themselves  for 
intelligent  practice.      Of  course  many  German  den- 
tists   made    for  themselves    enviable   positions    in 
practical  as  well  as  in  scientific  dentistry,  although 
the   mass   of   the  profession,  as   already  set  forth, 
was  in  practical  dentistry  far  below   the   standard 
reached  in  America.      Four  or  five  years  ago  a  few 
American  dentists   located   in   Germany  and   have 
exerted  a  marked  influence   for  good.      Within  the 
last  six  years  schools  of  dentistry  have  been  estab- 
lished as  departments  of  several  German  universi- 
ties, and  in  the  school,  in  which  I  am  connected, 
an  earnest  endeavor  has  been  made  to  emulate  the 
thoroughness  of  instruction  in  American  schools." 
After  alluding  to  the  accomplishments  in  bacteri- 
ology by  Koch,  others  and   himself  he   concluded 
by  saying:    ''The  physicians  in  Germany  are  taking 
greater   interest   in   dental   matters,    but   a  higher 
standard  of  education  is  needed  to  develop  a  more 
intelligent  appreciation  of   the  importance  of  such 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  l6l 

facts  as  have  been  alluded  to.  At  present  there  is 
virtually  a  three  years'  course  instead  of  a  two 
years'  course  which  prevailed  a  few  years  ago. 
Physicians  as  well  as  dentists  have  recognized  the 
fact  that  medicine  meets  upon  common  grounds 
with  dentistry,  and  that  it  would  be  as  impossible 
to  separate  medicine  from  dentistry  as  to  separate 
the  mouth  from  the  alimentary  tract." 

The  other  European  nations  modeled  after  the 
French  and  English  dental  art  with  the  exception 
of  Germany,  which  land  of  learned  physicians  and 
surgeons  made  additional  progress  in  dental  science. 
Perhaps  the  only  item  pertaining  to  the  German 
art  of  Dental  Prosthesis  is  the  mysterious  discov- 
ery near  Bologna,  Germany.^  Some  years  since 
while  some  workmen  were  at  work  digging  a  ditch 
through  an  old  God's  acre,  were  obliged  to  exca- 
vate many  graves.  The  dead  of  course  had  differ- 
entiated to  earth,  but  dozens  of  artificial  dentures 
still  remained  and  were  in  good  repair.  The  den- 
tures were  made  of  ivory  and  bone,  while  the  plates 
were  of  solid  gold.  The  superintendent  of  the 
excavations,  thinking  little  of  the  find,  sold  the  old 
dentures  to  a  goldsmith,  who  in  turn  thought 
slightly  of  his  purchase  and  remelted  and  refined 
the  precious  metal.  Whether  these  gold  dentures 
were  the   workmanship  of  ancient   dentists  or  the 

♦Independent  Practitioner,  vol.  VI.,  p.  4S. 


1 62  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

production   of    medieval    jewelers,    is   beyond   the 
power  of  this  generation  to  prove. 

AUSTRIAN    DENTAL    ART. 

The  first  dental  school  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  was  opened  in  Vienna  on  the  14th  day  of 
December,  i  S74.  It  bore  the  modest  name  of  '  'First 
Dental  School  of  Vienna."-  The  course  was  divided 
into  a  preliminary  one  of  four  weeks  and  a  regular 
course  of  six  months.  "Students  and  doctors  of 
medicine  will  be  admitted,"  say  their  catalogue, 
"to  the  lectures,  and  doctors  only  to  the  labratory. 
The  fee  is  300  flourins.  The  school  will  not  confer 
degrees,  the  government  gives  the  title  '^lagis- 
trate  of  Dentistry.'" 

In  1885  a  dental  journal  was  founded  called, 
Oesterreichisch-Ungarishe  Vierteljahrsschrift  fuer 
Zahnheilkunde — Editors,  Schmid  and  Weiss.  It 
is  still  published.  Aside  from  a  few  dental  organ- 
izations of  Austria,  the  dental  progress  is  similar  to 
the  countries  already  described.  The  following 
countries  have  one  or  more  dental  schools  and 
journals: 

Switzerland. — Schweizerische  Vierteljahrs- 
schrift fuer  Zahnheilkunde,  Zuerich — Editors,  Red- 
ard  and  Frick. 

Italy. — L'Odontologia,  Palermo — Editor,  Rib- 
alla    Xicodemi.      Giornal    di    Correspondenza    pei 

^Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XVII.,  p.  222. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 63 

Dentisti,  Milan — Editors,  Dott  and  Coulliaux.  La 
Scienza  Dentaria  Revista,  Florence — Editor,  Cian- 
chi.  La  Progress  Dentistico,  Milan — Editor,  Plat- 
schick.  La  Reforma  Dentistica,  Naples — Editor, 
Cali. 

Spain.  —  Le  Odentologia,  Cadiz  —  Editor, 
Aguilar. 

Russia. — Messager  Odontologique,  St.  Peters- 
burg— Editor  Sinitzin  (A.  P.)  Suboviachebny 
Vestnick,  St.  Petersburg — Editor,  Sinitzin  (H). 

Hungary. — Odontoskop,  Budapest  —  Editor, 
Iszlai. 

Scandinavia.  —  Skandinavisk  Tandlaegefore- 
nings  Tidskrift,  Copenhagen — Editor,  Christen- 
sen.  Den  Norske  Tandlaegeforenings  Tidende, 
Christiana — Editor,  Seel.  Nordisk  Kvartalskrift 
for  Tandlaegekunst — P^ditor's  name  not  given. 
Tidskrift  for  Tandlaeger — Editor,  Carstens. 


1 64  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


AMERICAN  DENTAL   ART. 

Dentistry  had  as  yet  received  no  great  impetus, 
nor  had  the  art  met  the  people  who  were  to  restore 
it  to  its  ancient  professional  dignity,  and  later  in 
their  acquaintance  introduce  the  mere  art  to  its 
superior  companion  the  science.  But  latent  beams 
of  the  science  were  destined  to  appear  and  we  can 
be  proud  to  say  that  the  initial  steps  toward  pro- 
gress and  attainments  were  taken  in  our  own  dear 
native  land.  It  was  during  the  period  covered  by 
our  war  for  independence,  something  over  one 
hundred  years  ago  that  dentistry  was  introduced 
into  America;  but  it  was  yet  in  its  crude  state  and 
absent  of  mature  modern  development. 

Believing  it  appropriate  to  make  some  particu- 
lar allusion  to  those  dentists  who  were  the  pioneers 
of  the  profession  in  this  country,  and  who  laid, 
solidly  and  durably,  the  foundations  of  the  present 
superstructure  of  dentistry,  we  shall  briefly  treat  of 
these  patriarchs. 

In  October  of  the  year  of  1766,  there  arrived 
in  the  United  States,  from  England,  Mr.  John 
Woofendale.  *  This  gentleman  was  a  regularly  edu- 
cated dentist,  having  been  instructed  by  Dr. 
Thomas  Berdmore,  whom  we  learned  was  the  den- 
tist to  King  George  III.      He  is  the  first  dentist,  so 

♦Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  7. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  165 

called  and  practicing  as  such,  of  whom  any  record 
can  be  found,  as  having  visited  this  country.  Mr. 
Woofendale  commenced  practice  in  New  York  soon 
after  he  arrived.  He  also  practiced  for  a  short 
period  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  While  in  this 
country  he  did  dental  work  for  many  prominent 
Colonial-Americans,  among  them  Mr.  William 
Walton  of  New  York,  for  whom  he  constructed  an 
entire  double  set  of  artificial  teeth,  which  is  believed 
to  be  the  first  full  set  inserted  in  America.  But 
the  doctor  did  not  long  remain  in  the  colonies; 
either  because  he  did  not  receive  sufficient  practical 
encouragement,  or  from  some  other  unexplainable 
cause  he  returned  in  March,  1768,  to  England  his 
native  home.  He  divided  his  time  between  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  for  a  period  of  eighteen 
months.  In  1785  he  returned  from  London  to 
America  and  having  purchased  a  farm  in  New  Jer- 
sey, retired,  and  in  1828,  at  the  age  of  Sy  years, 
died. 

From  the  time  when  John  Woofendale  left  for 
England  until  late  in  the  colonial  confederacy 
there  was  not,  as  far  as  can  be  determined,  a  reg- 
ularly practicing  dentist  in  this  country.  Such,  in 
brief,  was  the  general  status  of  dentistry  at  the 
birth-time  of  our  grand  republic.  "  When  we  look 
back  to  that  condition  of  the  science,"  says  Dr. 
Dexter,"^  "we  may  and  do  experience,  a  just  feeling 

*Dental  and  Oral  Science,  Dexter,  p.  6. 


1 66  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

of  pride  and  perceive  matter  for  gratulation  in  the 
giant  strides  of  improvement  made  manifest  by  the 
slightest  comparison  of  '  then  '  and  '  now.'  Such  a 
retrospect  is  the  best  and  surest  means  of  encourage- 
ment to  continue  in  the  path  by  which  we  have  so 
rapidly  and  agreeably  advanced,  and  will  insure,  it 
is  certain,  a  further  and  equally  great  elevation  of 
our  profession  among  the  liberal  sciences  in  the 
future.'' 

In  the  month  of  July,  1778,  perhaps  the  darkest 
period  of  the  American  revolution,  the  French  fleet 
with  reinforcement  reached  our  shore.  Among 
the  proud  French  soldiers  was  one  named  Dr. 
Joseph  Lemaire, "  who  came  expressly  to  this  coun- 
try to  battle  for  American  independence.  This 
patriotic  Frenchman,  Lamaire,  soon  became  an 
intimate  associate  of  both  Washington  and  Lafay- 
ette, and  while  fighting  with  them  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies  he  often  relieved  the 
suffering  soldiers  of  the  pangs  of  odontalgia.  Not 
only  did  he  exercise  his  skill  to  secure  for  the 
revolutionary  veterans  freedom  from  physical  suf- 
fering, but  he  too  seized  his  sword  and  shouldered 
his  gun  and  played  an  active  part  in  that  memora- 
able  strife  for  human  liberty.  While  the  French 
and  American   armies,  in    178 1-2,  were   in  winter 

*Annals  of  Philadelphia— Watson,  vol.  I.,  p.  179. 
Dental  and  Oral  Science,  Dexter,  p.  7. 
Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  2. 
Western  Dental  Journal,  vol.  I.,  p.  995 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  167 

quarters,  side  by  side,  near  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  Dr.  Joseph  Lemaire,  by  permisssion  of 
Count  Rochambeau,  the  commanding  general, 
taught  the  dental  art  to  Josiah  Flagg,  then  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  and  James  Gardett  aged  twenty- 
five.  Lemair's  practice  was  not  limited  to  the 
■soldiers  only,  but  he  did  dental  operations  for  the 
people  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

Dr.  Hayden  speaks  of  him  as  follows:^"  *'The 
first  hints  that  were  afforded  or  opportunities 
offered  to  any  person  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the 
profession  were,  we  believe,  through  a  French  den- 
tist, by  the  name  of  Lamaire,  who  offered  his 
services  to  the  public  during  the  revolutionary  war. 
^  '■"■  ""  He  was  not  without  some  pretentions  to 
skill  in  practical  operations,  especially  in  trans- 
planting teeth.  -5^  ^  -3^  He  likewise  undertook 
to  instruct  some  two  or  three  persons  in  the  pro- 
fession, which  may  be  considered  as  the  origin  or 
commencement  of  dentistry  in  this  country."  In 
the  winter  of  1785-6,  Lemaire  transplanted  one 
hundred  and  seventy  teeth,  and  not  one  succeeded; 
however  this  practice  of  his  fell  into  disfavor, 
whether  from  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  French- 
man or  from  the  very  wide  prevalence  of  infectious 
diseases  liable  to  be  transplanted,  we  cannot  say. 
Watson  in  his  ' 'Annals  of  Philadelphia,"  say,  that 
"Dr.  Lamaire  arrived   in   this   city   in    1784,    and 

♦Dental  and  Oral  Science,  Dexter,  p.  8. 


1 68  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

here  continued  the  practice  of  dentistry.  From  all 
accounts  of  the  Frenchman,  we  are  led  to  believe 
that  he  was  a  polished  gentleman  and  had  received 
an  excellent  schooling  in  France. ''^  He  certainly- 
must  be  remembered  as  a  painstaking  and  studious 
professional,  since  in  the  year  1812  he  published 
his  first  dental  work,  entitled  "Le  dentiste  des 
Dames, "  Paris,  1 8 1 2.  This  work  was  published  in  four 
editions,  namely,  1812,  1818,  1824  and  1833.  He 
issued  *'Deux  Observations  d'anatomiepathologique 
sur  les  dents, "  Paris,  1 8 1 6 ;  he  wrote  a  volume  known 
as  ''Histoire  naturelle  des  maladies  des  dents  de 
I'espece  humaine"  (translated  from  the  English  work 
of  Joseph  Fox,  Paris,  1821);  following  this  he  con- 
tributed to  the  early  dental  literature  a  book  in 
three  volumes  entitled  *'Traite  sur  les  dents  physi- 
ologic, Pathologic,"  Paris,   1822  and  1824. 

About  the  same  time  Dr.  Isaac  Greenwood  f 
emigrated  from  Great  Britain  and  settled  in 
Boston,  where  he  did  an  extensive  business  until 
his  death.  How  or  of  whom  he  learned  the  dental 
art  does  not  appear  on  record.  '  He  had  two  sons, 
Clark  and  John,  who  learned  of  him,  and  of  these 
two  dentists  we  will  read  later. 

Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the  United 
States  as  an   independent  nation,  an  Englishman, 

♦American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  II.,  p.  20. 
tDental  Dictionary- — Harris,  1st  ed.,  p.  333. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  8. 

Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  1. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 69 

Dr.  Whitelock"^  by  name,  emigrated  to  our  shores 
and  practiced  dentistry  in  the  New  England  states. 
How  long  he  continued  is  not  known,  but  positive 
evidence  can  be  obtained  that  he  landed  in  1784. 
Of  him  Dr.  Hayden  says:  "Dr.  Whitelock  is  a 
gentleman  of  polite  address  and  accomplished 
manners,  who,  about  the  same  time  as  Lemair,  or 
shortly  after,  entered  this  country  as  one  of  a 
company  of  theatrical  performers  who  were  induced 
to  come  here  through  a  rage  for  theatrical  per- 
formances." 

Josiah  Flagg,t  we  learned  in  the  preceding 
pages,  obtained  his  knowledge  of  dentistry  from 
Joseph  Lemaire.  Both  Lemaire  and  Flagg  were 
soldiers  in  the  American  cause,  the  one  in  the 
French  army  and  the  other  holding  a  major's  com- 
mission in  the  American.  Thus,  while  in  winter 
quarters  in  1781,  in  his  leisure  time,  Flagg  was 
under  the  immediate  instruction  of  the  French 
surgeon-dentist.  Upon  the  close  of  the  war  Dr. 
Jossiah  Flagg  settled  in  Boston,  where  he  practiced 
dentistry.  When  the  second  war  opened  with 
England  in  1812  he  again  became  a  strong  advo- 
cate for  the  Union  cause  and  enlisted  in  the  army. 
But  early  in  this  struggle  Dr.  Flagg  was  taken 
prisoner  and  taken  to  England,  where,  on  parole, 


♦Encj'clopaedia  Britannica,  Am.  Sup.,  vol.  III.,  p.  78. 

Dental  and  Oral  Science,  Dexter,  p,  8. 
tibid,  p.  9. 


I70  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Ashley  Cooper  and 
assisted  him  in  surgical  operations  at  Guy's  Hos- 
pital, London.  After  staying  in  England  several 
years  he  returned  to  America  to  resume  his  prac- 
tice in  Boston.  An  extract  from  a  circular  which 
Dr.  Flagg  distributed  in  the  city  of  Boston  and  its 
environs  is  interesting  since  it  portrays  fairly  the 
dental  practice  of  1785  and  later. 

W'e  have  before  us  this  interesting  document 
which  gives  quite  acurately  the  degree  of  profi- 
ciency which  had  -been  reached  in  dentistry  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  last  century.  It  consists  of 
an  advertisement  issued  by  Dr.  Josiah  Flagg,  sur- 
geon-dentist, who  informs  the  public  "that  he 
practices  in  all  the  branches  with  improvements 
[i.  e.],  Transplants  both  live  and  dead  teeth  with 
great  conveniency,  and  gives  less  pain  than  here- 
tofore practiced  in  Europe  or  America.  '^'  ^  * 
Sews  up  hare  lips,  -5^  ^-  ^  cures  ulcers.  * 
*  "^  Extracts  teeth  and  stumps,  or  roots  with 
ease.  -^  ^  *  Reinstates  teeth  and  gums  that 
are  much  depreciated  by  nature,  carelessness, 
acids,  or  corroding  medicine.  ^  ^  *  Fastens 
those  teeth  that  are  loose  (unless  wasted  at  the 
roots),  regulates  teeth  from  their  first  cutting  to 
prevent  fevers  and  pain  in  children,  assists  nature 
in  the  extension  of  the  jaws,  for  the  beautiful 
arrangement  of  the  second  set,  and  preserves  them 
in  their   natural  whiteness   entirely  free    from   all 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  171 

scorbutic  complaints,  and  when  thus  put  in  order 
and  his  directions  followed  (which  are  simple)  he 
engages  that  the  further  care  of  a  dentist  will  be 
wholly  unnecessary.  *  ^'  *  Eases  pain  in 
teeth  without  drawing.  -^  ^-  *  Stops  bleeding 
in  the  jaws,  gums,  or  arteries.  *  •?«•  >5-  Lines 
and  plumbs  teeth  with  virgin   gold,  foils  or  leads. 

*  *  *  Fixes  gold  roofs  and  palates  and  arti- 
ficial teeth  of  any  quality  without  injury  to  any 
independent  or  natural  ones,  greatly  assisting  the 
pronunciation  and  the  swallow  when  injured  by 
natural  or  other  defects.  A  room  for  the  practice 
with  every  accommodation  at  his  house,  where  may 
be  had  dentifrices,  tinctures,  teeth  and  gum 
brushes,  mastics,  etc.,  warranted  approved  and 
adapted  to  the  various    ages  and    circumstances  ; 

*  *  "^  also  chew-sticks,  particularly  useful  in 
cleansing  the  fore  teeth  and  preserving  a  natural 
and  beautiful  whiteness  ;  which  medicine  and 
chew-sticks  are  to  be  sold  wholesale  and  retail  that 
they  may  be  more  extensively  useful. 

t.*  -K-  ^  L)j.  josiah  Flagg  has  a  method  to 
furnish  those  ladies  and  gentlemen  or  children 
with  artificial  teeth,  gold  gums,  roofs,  or  palates 
that  are  at  a  distance  and  cannot  attend  him  per- 
sonally. 

"Cash  given  for  handsome  and  healthy  live 
teeth  at  No.  47  Newburg  Street,  Boston  (1796)."-^' 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XVII.,  p.  669. 


172  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

The  document  is  ornamented  in  one  corner  by- 
formidable  and  antiquated  instruments,  while  in 
the  other  are  to  be  seen  tooth-brushes  quite  of  the 
modern  pattern.  It  has  been  preserved  by  a  de- 
scendent  of  one  who,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  back, 
purchased  a  brush  and  tincture  from  Josiah  Flagg 
in  the  year  1800. 

In  1785  Dr.  Flagg  issued  an  advertisement 
which  also  portrays  a  few  hidden  items  as  to  early 
American  dental  practice.  It  reads:  "Dr.  Flagg 
transplants  teeth,  cures  ulcers  and  eases  them  from 
pain  without  drawing;  fastens  those  that  are  loose; 
mends  teeth  with  foil  or  gold  to  be  as  lasting  and 
useful  as  the  sound  teeth,  and  without  pain  in  the 
operation;  makes  artificial  teeth  and  secures  them  in 
an  independent,  lasting  and  serviceable  manner. 
Sews  up  hair-lips,  and  fixes  gold  roofs  and  palates, 
greatly  assisting  the  pronunciation  and  the  swol- 
low.  ^  ^  ^  Cuts  the  defects  from  the  teeth  and 
restores  them  to  whiteness  and  soundness,  without 
saws,  files,  acids  and  such  abusives  as  have  shame- 
fully crept  into  the  profession,  and  which  have  de- 
stroyed the  confidence  of  the  public.  Sells,  by 
wholesale  and  retail,  dentifrices,  tinctures,  chew- 
sticks,  mastics,  teeth  and  gum  brushes,  suitable 
for  every  age,  complaint  and  climate,  with  direc- 
tions for  their  use." 

Dr.  Josiah  Flagg  died  in  Boston  at  the  age 
of  fifty-two. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  173 

James  Gardette*  was  born  in  France  in  1756, 
He  studied  medicine  for  two  years  in  Paris  (1773— 
1775),  and  immediately  afterward  spent  two  years 
in  the  hospital  practice  at  Foulon;  he  was  commis- 
sioned as  surgeon  in  the  French  navy  in  1777.  He 
was  instructed  in  dental  art  by  M.  Taudinier,  a  den- 
tist of  high  standing  in  Paris.  He  came  to 
America  in  1778,  landing  at  Plymouth,  Mass. 
He  subsequently  resigned  his  commission  in  the 
French  navy  and  adopted  this  country  as  his  home. 
When  the  French  fleet  and  army  under  Count 
Rochambeau  arrived  at  Newport,  178 1,  Gar- 
dette  visited  that  town  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Lemaire,  of  whom  he  received  further 
instructions  in  dentistry.  Both  he  and  Lemaire 
found  occasion  to  do  dental  services  for  many 
revolutionary  generals  and  their  subordinates.  In 
the  autumn  of  1783,  he  went  to  New  York  where 
his  professional  success  appears  to  have  been  but 
slight.  In  1774  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  continued  in  a  very  successful  dental  practice 
until  1829,  when  he  returned  to  France. 

*'  Dr.  Gardette's  name,"  says  Chapin  A.  Harris, 
"will  always  be  prominent  among  those  of  the  best 
American  detists.  As  an  operator  Mr.  Gardette 
displayed  great  judgment,  care  and  dexterity." 
He  was  the  first  to  substitute  flat  clasps  for  liga- 


*Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  9. 
Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  2. 


174  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

tures  or  wires  in  artificial  dentures.  He  invented 
the  '*  mortise  plate"  to  which  the  teeth  are  secured 
by  means  of  gold  pins,  and  which  permits  the  tooth 
to  rest  upon  the  gums  instead  of  the  gold  plate. 
The  first  application  of  the  principle  of  suction  or 
atmospheric  pressure  has  been  attributed  to  him. 
He  was  also  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  practice  of 
substituting  gold-foil  for  lead  in  filling  teeth  and 
related  that  he  had  at  one  period  prepared  gold- 
foil  for  his  own  use  from  Dutch  ducats,  when  no 
sufficiently  skilled  gold-beater  could  be  had.  So 
far  as  can  be  learned  he  published  but  one  work, 
titled  ''Transplantation  of  Human  Teeth."  In 
1829  he  sailed  home  to  France  and  in  August, 
1 83 1,  at  the  old  age  of  seventy-five,  he  died. 

CLARK    AND   JOHN    GREENWOOD. 

These  two  gentlemen  were  the  sons  of  Dr. 
Isaac  Greenwood,  and  both  learned  their  father's 
chosen  profession.  Little  indeed  is  known  of  Clark; 
it  is  claimed  he  was  born  in  England  and  when  a 
lad  accompanied  his  father  to  America.  After 
having  acquired  a  fair  knowledge  of  dentistry  he 
left  Boston  and  journeyed  to  New  York  City  where, 
in  1778,  he  opened  an  office  and  continued  the 
practice. 

John  Greenwood  was  born  in  Boston  and  from 
-all  accounts  was  the  first  native  born  dentist. 

Young  Greenwood,  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 75 

enlisted  in  the  American  army  and  fought  in  the 
battles  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Trenton,  and  was  also 
in  the  expedition  to  Canada  under  Gen.  Arnold. 
He  afterwards  entered  the  naval  privateer  service. 
in  which  he  remained  until  the  close  of  the  revolu- 
tionary war;  when  finding  himself  out  of  employ- 
ment, he  applied  to  his  brother  Clark,  who  was  in 
New  York  City  practicing  dentistry,  but  here  we 
learn  he  received  no  encouragement.  He  then 
embarked  in  the  business  of  nautical  and  mathemati- 
cal instrument  making.  Soon  after  having  engaged 
in  this  business  Dr.  Gamage  of  New  York  requested 
young  Greenwood  to  extract  a  tooth  for  one  of  his 
patients,  which  he  did  very  successfully.  This  was 
the  commencement  of  his  practice  as  a  dentist. 
He,  however,  continued  at  the  manufacture  of 
instruments  and  added  ivory  turning  to  the  trade  ; 
he  practiced  dentistry  as  opportunities  afforded,, 
the  demand  for  his  services,  however,  in  this  last 
departure  soon  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  he 
was  compelled  to  abandon  his  other  occupations. 
His  practice  grew  rapidly  and  was  obliged  to  pro- 
cure assistance,  which  he  did;  Dr.  William  Pitt 
and  his  brother  Clark  acted  in  the  capacity  of  pro- 
fessional assistants.  Dr.  John  Greenwood  was 
well  informed  in  the  surgical  department  of  his 
profession,  as  an  example  of  which  is  quoted  the 
fact  "that  during  his  practice  in  the  treatment  of 
a    diseased    maxillary    sinus,     he    perforated    this 


176  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

cavity  from  the  socket  of  an  upper  molar  and 
effected  a  cure."*  It  has  been  said  that  he  was  the 
first  in  the  United  States  to  strike  up  gold-plates 
to  serve  as  bases  for  artificial  dentures,  without  a 
knowledge  of  it  having  been  done  across  the  sea. 
During  his  professional  career  while  in  New  York 
he  immortalized  himself  and  profession  as  well  by 
carving  from  the  tusk  of  the  hippopotamus  a  full 
set  of  artificial  teeth  for  the  great  American  "who 
was  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the 
hearts  of  his  countrymen."  This  set  of  teeth  was 
secured  by  spiral-springs  and  was  intricate  in 
its  appearance  as  compared  with  our  later  den- 
tures. The  denture  in  fact  caricatured  the  lower 
portion  of  his  noble  face,  and  they  gave  him  much 
discomfort,  and  as  Senator  William  Maclay  of  that 
time  said,t  "his  voice  is  hollow  and  indistinct, 
owing,  I  believe,  to  artificial  teeth." 

The  material  used  in  the  set  was  hippopotamus 
ivory.  The  lower  plate  was  made  of  one  solid 
piece,  teeth  and  base  being  carved  together;  the 
upper  denture  required  greater  skill,  and  was  made 
with  the  plate  separate  and  the  teeth  riveted 
to  it  with  fine  gold  rivets.  The  General  had  sev- 
eral sets  of  teeth,  but  the  only  one  that  gave  him 
any  comfort  were  those  made  by  Greenwood.  A 
Swiss  artist  of  New  York  City  also  produced  den- 

*Deatal  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  11. 
titems  of  Interest,  vol.  XIII.,  p.  183. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  177 

tal  substitutes  for  Washington,  as  the  following 
recently  written  regarding  this  mechanism  ob- 
viously tells:  "The  plate  or  framework  which  held 
the  teeth  in  his  mouth  was  made  of  iron,  and  after 
Washington's  death  were  sent  to  the  New  York 
Loan  Exhibition  in  aid  of  Washington's  memorial 
arch,  but  was  deemed  by  the  committee  too  horri- 
ble to  display;  so  they  locked  it  up  in  a  safe.  No 
one  could  have  dreamed  what  it  was  unless  it  had 
been  labeled;  most  spectators  believed  it  to  be  a 
colonial  rat  trap."* 

Probably  had  it  not  been  for  the  ingenuity  of 
the  first  American  dentist,  Dr.  Greenwood,  the 
basic  structure  of  this  glorious  country  would  have 
lacked  completeness  by  having  at  an  early  date 
lost  its  most  devoted  father.  A  block  of  marble 
might  with  propriety  have  been  cemented  into  the 
monument  reared  in  memory  of  Washington,  and 
in  it  carved  in  glittering  letters  the  name  of  Dr. 
John  Greenwood. 

The  following  letter  of  Dr.  John  Greenwood  to 
Gen.  George  Washington,  as  an  historical  treasure 
is  fully  worthy  of  space.      It  reads :t 

''New  York,  Dec.  28,  1798. 

"Sir:  I  send  you  enclosed  two  setts  of  teeth, 
one  fixed  on  the  old  barrs  in  part,  and  the  sett  you 
sent  me  from  Philadelphia,  which,  when  I  received 

♦Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XIII.,  p,  183. 

tMag-azine  of  American  History,  vol.  XVI.,  p,  294. 


178  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

was  very  black,  occasioned  either  by  your  soaking 
them  in  port  wine,  or  by  your  drinking  it.  Port 
wine  being  sour  takes  off  all  polish  and  all  acid 
has  a  tendency  to  soften  every  kind  of  teeth  and 
bone.  Acid  is  used  in  coloring  every  kind  of 
ivory,  therefore  it  is  very  pernicious  to  the  teeth. 
I  advise  you  to  either  take  them  out  after  dinner 
and  put  them  in  clean  water  and  put  in  another 
sett,  or  clean  them  with  a  brush  and  some  chalk 
scraped  fine.  It  will  absorb  the  acids  which  col- 
lect from  the  mouth  and  preserve  them  longer — I 
have  found  another  and  better  way  of  using  the 
sealing-wax  when  holes  are  eaten  in  the  teeth  by 
acid,  etc.  First  observe  and  dry  the  teeth,  then 
take  a  piece  of  wax  and  cut  it  into  small  pieces  as 
you  think  will  fill  up  the  whole;  then  take  a  large 
nail  or  any  other  piece  of  iron  and  heat  it  hot  into 
the  fire,  then  put  your  piece  of  wax  into  the  hole 
and  melt  it  by  means  of  introducing  the  point  of 
the  nail  to  it.  I  have  tried  it  and  found  it  to  con- 
solidate, and  do  better  than  the  other  way,  and  if 
done  proper  it  will  resist  the  saliva.  It  will  be 
handier  for  you  to  take  hold  of  the  nail  with  small 
plyers  than  with  tongs  thus,  the  wax  must  be 
very  small,  not  bigger  than  this  (*).  If  your 
teeth  grow  black  take  some  chalk  and  a  pine 
or  cedar  stick,  it  will  rub  off.  If  you  want  your 
teeth  more  yellow,  soak  them  in  broth  or  pot 
liquor,  but  not  in  tea  or   acids.      Porter   is   a  good 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  179 

thing  to  color  them,  and  will  not  hurt  but  preserve 
them,  but  it  must  not  be  in  the  least  pricked — you 
will  find  I  have  altered  the  upper  teeth  you  sent 
me  from  Philadelphia.  Leaving  the  enamel  on 
the  teeth  don't  preserve  them  any  longer  than  if  it 
was  off,  it  only  holds  the  color  better,  but  to  pre- 
serve them  they  must  be  very  often  changed  and 
cleaned,  for  whatever  attacks  them  must  be  re- 
pelled as  often,  or  it  will  gain  ground  and  destroy 
the  works.  The  two  setts  I  repaired  is  done  on  a 
different  plan  than  when  they  are  done  when  made 
entirely  new,  for  the  teeth  are  screwed  on  the 
barrs,  instead  of  having  the  barrs  cast  red  hot  on 
them,  which  is  the  reason,  I  believe,  they  destroy 
or  dissolve  so  soon  near  the  barrs. 

"Sir,  after  hoping  you  will   not  be  obliged   to 
be  troubled  very  soon  in  the  same  way, 
"I  subscribe  myself, 

"Your  very  humble  servant, 

"John  Greenwood. 

"Sir,  the  additional  chare  is  fifteen  dollars. 

"P.  S. — I  expect  next  spring  to  move  my 
family  into  Conneticut  State.  If  I  do  I  will  write 
and  let  you  know,  and  whether  I  give  up  my  pres- 
ent business  or  not  I  will,  as  long  as  I  live,  do  any- 
thing in  this  way  for  you  if  you  require  it." 

The  following  is  Washington's  reply  :^ 

♦Magazine  of  American  History,  vol.  XVII.,  p.  438. 
Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  11. 


l8o  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Mount  Vernon,  6th  Jan.,  1799. 
*'Sir:     Your  letter   of   the   28th  ult.,  with   the 
parcel  that  accompanied  it,  came  safe  to  hand,  and 
I  feel  obliged  for  your   attention   to   my  requests, 
and  for  the  directions  you  have  given  me. 

"Enclosed  you  have  bank-notes  for  fifteen  dol- 
lars, which  I  shall  be  glad  to  hear  has  got  safe  to 
your  hands.  If  you  should  remove  to  Connecticut, 
I  should  be  glad  to  be  advised  of  it;  and  to  what 
place,  as  shall  always  prefer  your  services  to  that 
of  any  other,  in  the  line  of  your  present  profession. 
— I  am,  sir. 

Your  Very  H'ble  Servant, 

"Go.  Washington." 

He  carved  one  in  1790  and  another  set  in  1795. 
In  a  letter  which  has  been  preserved,  "The 
Father  of  his  Country"  complains,  in  a  dignified 
way,  that  his  teeth  hurt  him  and  do  not  very  satis- 
factorily serve  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
designed.  He  complains  of  their  "bulging  out  the 
upper  lip,"  and  "causing  the  jaw  line  to  protrude, 
giving  the  face  an  unnatural  appearance.""^ 

Thus  Dr.  Greenwood  is  best  known  to  the  pro- 
fession of  to-day  through  the  fact  of  his  having 
been  the  dentist  of  the  first  President  of  the  United 
States.  As  near  as  can  be  learned  Dr.  John 
Greenwood  died  in  New  York  City  in  18 16. 

♦Demorest  Family  Magazine,  December,  1893. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  l8l 

Horace  H.  Hayden'^  was  born  Oct.  13,  1768,  in 
Winsor,  Conn.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  v/ent  to 
sea  as  a  cabin-boy,  voyaging  to  the  West  Indies. 
In  1784  he  abandoned  sailing,  and  being  thrown 
on  his  own  resources  by  the  poverty  of  his  parents, 
he  became  apprenticed  to  an  architect,  which  busi- 
ness he  followed  until  his  twenty-fourth  year,  when, 
being  in  New  York,  and  having  occasion  for  the 
professional  service  of  a  dentist,  he  visited  the 
office  of  Dr.  Greenwood.  While  under  treatment 
he  determined  to  study  dentistry.  He  soon  pro- 
cured the  few  dental  books  then  in  existence,  and 
not  apprehending  any  deficiency  in  the  mechanics 
he  directed  his  undevided  study  to  the  calling.  He 
settled  in  Baltimore  in  1804  with  little  practical 
knowledge  of  the  art  and  science.  Dr.  Hayden's 
previous  education  was  hardly  calculated  to  further 
his  professional  career,  but  being  a  man  of  con- 
siderable energy  and  ability,  he,  by  dint  of  hard 
study,  soon  mastered  his  text-books,  applying 
himself  sincerely  to  anatomy,  physiology,  surgery 
and  general  medicine.  His  proficiency  in  these 
studies  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  medical 
profession,  both  locally  and  generally,  and  secured 
him  a  recognition  in  the  latter  profession;  having 
merited  the  honorary  degree  of  ''Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine" by  both  the  University  of  Maryland  and  the 


♦Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  3. 
Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  13. 


1 82  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

Jefferson  College  of  Philadelphia.  In  1825  he  was 
invited  by  the  former  institution  to  read  a  course  of 
lectures  on  dentistry  before  its  medical  class;  he 
accepted  the  invitation  and  thus  inaugurated  the 
first  move  in  the  direction  of  oral  teaching  in  den- 
tistry in  a  college.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery  and  alsa 
of  the  American  Society  of  Surgeon-Dentists;  and 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  American  Journal  of  Den- 
tal Science,  the  first  dental  periodical  ever  issued. 
Besides  having  written  many  articles  on  dentistry 
and  medicine,  he  contributed  valuable  theses  on 
geology. 

He  was  surely  a  man  of  unusual  strength  of 
character  and  few  pioneers  in  dentistry  did  more 
to  shape  the  future  profession.  He  died  Jan.  26, 
1844,  at  the  age  of  seventy-five. 

Edward  Hudson,^  who  was  born  in  Ireland  in 
1772,  had  been  thoroughly  educated  by  his  cousin 
and  adopted  father,  a  dentist  of  the  highest  posi- 
tion in  Dublin.  At  the  age  of  thirty-three  he  emi- 
grated to  America  and  settled  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  first  operators  of  his  time.  Though  Dr.  Hud- 
son is  not  credited  with  any  writings  relative  to 
the  profession,  yet  he  contributed  many  devices 
and  inventions  which  make  his  name  dear  to  those 


♦Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  3. 
Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  13. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  183 

who  love  the  profession.      He  died  in   1833  at  the 
<Lge  of  sixty-one. 

John  Randall*  was  born  in  1773  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  the  class  of  1802,  a  class 
celebrated,  for  the  since  displayed,  eminent  talent 
•of  its  members.  Randall  soon  after  leaving  col- 
lege began  the  study  of  medicine  under  Dr.  John 
Jefferis  of  Boston.  After  a  short  period  of  precep- 
torship  he  drifted  into  the  practice  of  dentistry, 
and  anon  established  himself  in  Boston.  The  cir- 
cumstances under  which  he  was  lead  to  turn  his 
attention  to  dentistry  are  interesting  as  showing 
the  character  of  the  practice  of  that  time.  Find- 
ing, while  at  Harvard,  that  some  of  his  teeth  were 
•decaying,  he  applied  to  the  most  prominent  den- 
tist of  whom  he  knew  and  was  frankly  told  by  that 
practitioner  that  *'his  business  was  to  put  in  new 
teeth"  and  declined  -operating,  to  preserve  the 
natural  ones.  This  in  the  light  of  Randall's  gen- 
eral education  appeared  to  be  a  very  limited  view 
of  dental  science;  he  at  once  procured  such 
dental  books  as  he  could  find  and  studied  them 
under  the  impression  that  disease  might  and  should 
be  remedied  without  the  removal  of  the  diseased 
member.  His  first  efforts  in  dentistry  were  while 
at  the  college,  where  he  not  only  filled  his  own 
teeth  but  those  of  such  of  the  students  as  de- 
sired dental  attention.      When  practicing  in  Boston 

*Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  13. 


1 84 


he  was  famous  as  an  operator  and  in  extracting 
teeth  was  recognized  without  an  equal.  The 
forceps,  it  is  claimed,  were  used  by  him  long  before 
they  were  known  as  an  article  of  merchandise. 
His  success  at  crowning  teeth  was  very  great.  He 
died  in  1843  having  been  an  honorable  member  of 
the  profession  and  highly  regarded  by  the  medical 
fraternity. 

Leonard  Koecker*  was  born  in  Hanover  in  1785 
and  early  in  life  engaged  in  merchantile  pursuits. 
At  this  time  he  became  acquainted  with  a  traveling 
dentist  who  took  much  notice  of  him,  presenting 
Koecker  with  a  set  of  instruments.  This  gift 
inspired  the  lad  to  study  dentistry;  however,  he 
did  not  immediately  begin  the  study.  In  1807  he 
came  to  America,  engaged  as  a  commercial  agent 
for  an  English  company,  but  soon  failed,  and  then 
turned  his  attention  to  dental  practice.  He  located 
in  Philadelphia  in  1807  having  comparatively  little 
knowledge  of  the  art  or  science.  But  his  native 
ability  and  energy  soon  overcame  any  ordinary 
obstacles.  He  soon  gained  both  knowledge  and 
practice  and  in  1822  he  stood  high  in  the  profes- 
sion, and  did  a  business  of  $8,000  per  annum,  a 
sum  much  regarded  at  that  early  date.  His  health, 
however,  compelled  a  voyage  to  Europe,  and  from 
what  wc  learn,  he  settled  in  London,  where  he  was 


♦Dental  and  Oral  Science — Dexter,  p.  15. 
Dental  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  3. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 85 

widely  known  as  an  expert  dental  practitioner. 
In  1850,  then  sixty-five  years  old,  he  died.  Dr. 
Koecker  wrote  many  valuable  articles  on  dental 
science,  and  while  in  London  wrote  his  famous 
work  on  "Dental  Surgery."  The  volume  was  con- 
sidered of  great  merit,  and  is  even  to-day  quoted 
by  eminent  authorities.  Some  of  his  methods  of 
operating,  especially  those  on  the  treatment  of  the 
dental  pulp,  have  been  almost  universally  adopted. 

Jabez  Parkhurst,*  born  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct. 
4,  1764,  after  going  through  a  series  of  occu- 
pations, or  branches  of  business,  finally  settled 
on  dental  practice;  this  at  the  age  of  forty-three. 
He  had  the  advantage  of  mature  judgment,  fine 
address  and  classical  education  which  secured  for 
him  a  high  literary  and  social  position.  After 
qualifying  himself  as  best  he  could  through  the 
medium  of  books,  he  attended  lectures  on  anatomy, 
physiology  and  general  surgery  in  his  native  town. 
In  1807  he  established  himself  in  New  York  City, 
where  for  a  period  of  twenty  years  he  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  occupying  the  highest  position  in  the 
ranks  of  the  profession,  having  possibly  the  largest 
and  most  lucrative  practice  in  that  part  of  the 
Union. 

Such  in  brief  is  the  sketch  of  the  pioneers  of 
the  profession  in  this  country.  Our  study  of  tliese 
characters  demonstrates  that  the  art   and  science 

*Detital  Advertiser,  vol.  II.,  p.  3. 


1 86  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

^vas  nurtured  by  noble  students;  that  all  through 
the  primitive  years  of  dentistry  there  have  been 
men  of  education  and  mechanical  ingenuity  wield- 
ing a  controlling  power,  and  who  had  a  just  appre- 
ciation of  the  needs  of  dental  practitioners.  Many 
more  gentlemen  of  later  date  and  not  less  strong 
claims  for  a  biographical  notice  might  be  here 
included;  but  will  postpone  speaking  of  them  and 
let  their  acts  tell  for  them  as  embodied  in  the 
pages  to  come,  rather  than  mention  them 
specially.  In  thus  deciding  no  negligence  of  their 
claims  or  depreciation  of  their  worth  and  ability  is 
intended,  and  trust  that  fair  consideration  may  be 
shown  them. 

The  following  written  by  Dr.  Welch,  the  able 
editor  of  the  "Items  of  Interest,"  speaks  appreci- 
ative words  of  the  fathers  of  our  profession:- 

"Let  us  not  ignore  the  fathers  of  our  profession. 
They  worked  under  great  disadvantages,  yet  many 
became  shining  lights.  When  we  were  groping 
our  way  in  darkness  they  lent  us  their  light,  and 
showed  us  the  way  to  success.  We  rejoiced  in 
their  light  until  we  too  became  illuminated  and 
went  forth  to  attract  and  conquer.  Others  are 
silently  passing  over  the  hill  toward  the  setting 
sun.  As  we  mark  their  stately  steps,  the  glow  of 
their  evening  sky  brightens  our  faces  and  gives  us 
inspiration.      We  walk  in  the  highway  they  made 

*Items  of  Interest,  vol.  XIV.,  p.  255. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS,  1 87 

for  us;  let  us  gratefully  acknowledge  their  services 
and  still  further  improve  and  beautify  the  way,  and 
leave  it  to  our  successors  as  a  kingly-way,  dignified 
and  honorable. 

**As  one  and  another  of  our  bright  lights  passes 
away,  we  are  too  apt  to  believe  there  are  fewer 
left  by  their  departure.  There  is  a  bright  side  to 
this  picture.  Others  are  coming  with  torches 
brightly  burning,  brighter  than  those  of  their  pre- 
decessors. They  are  moving  up  and  making  the 
way  beautiful.  Give  them  room;  give  them  cheer; 
while  we  very  properly  sing  requiems  to  our 
honored  dead,  let  us  not  refuse  merited  encomiums 
to  the  noble  living.  We  have  still  leaders  who 
are  giants.  They  are  the  world's  grand  men. 
When  we  lay  them,  one  by  one,  into  the  cold 
grave,  we  will  acknowledge  their  merits;  let  us 
acknowledge  them  now,  while  they  live  and  can 
hear  it,  bow  to  their  wisdom,  learn  of  their  skill, 
sit  at  their  feet  as  humble  disciples,  and  let  them 
see  we  appreciate  them. 

"Our  best  teachers  would  be  better  if  we  gave 
them  greater  evidence  of  our  appreciation.  Even 
when  such  are  specially  invited  to  our  gatherings, 
they  are  used  more  as  gold-headed  canes  to  adorn 
the  meetings  than  as  illuminators;  and  instead  of 
generously  recompensing  them,  the  officers  think 
they  are  doing  wonders  if  they  pay  their  bare 
expenses." 


1 88  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

From  the  time  of  Dr.  Greenwood's  successful 
appliance  for  Gen.  George  Washington  until  1820, 
successors  from  Europe  and  adoption  of  the  pro- 
fession by  native  born  Americans  greatly  increased 
the  number  of  dentists.  The  darkness  which  shroud- 
ed scientific  dentistry  in  the  seventeenth  century 
was  now  dispelled,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  with  the  development  of  a  new 
political  life  in  the  American  empire,  saw  dentistry 
given  a  professional  and  social  standing  worthy  of 
all  its  importance  in  alleviating  the  woes  of  the 
human  family. 

A  curious  specimen  of  medieval  American 
prosthetic  art  is  in  the  custody  of  Dr.  Brophy. 
The  piece  consists  of  ivory,  carved  to  fit  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws.  The  block  was  carved  so  as  to 
fit  the  alveolar-ridge  or  process,  and  on  each  side 
a  bicuspid  and  two  molars  wxre  carved  in  the  same 
block.  The  anterior  teeth  consist  of  human  teeth 
fastened  with  gold  to  the  ivory.  The  carving  was 
skillfully  done,  the  sulci  and  cusps  of  the  molars 
were  artificially  reproduced.  The  ivory,  however, 
did  not  resist  the  actions  of  the  fluids  of  the  mouth, 
and  thus  the  ivory  was  attacked  by  caries  similar 
to  the  effect  of  that  disease  on  the  natural  teeth. 
Another  unique  specimen  of  early  American  den- 
tal skill  is  in  the  possession  of  the  H.  D. 
Justi  Dental  Manufacturing  Company,  and  they 
have    kindly    allowed    the     cases     to     my    table 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 89 

that    I    might    describe    the    crude    workmanship. 

The  first  case,  an  upper  partial  gold  plate  sup- 
plying all  the  teeth  except  the  two  twelve-year 
molars,  is  a  grand  success  and  would  do  credit 
even  to  to-day.  The  gold  plate  snugly  fitted  the 
alveolar  process  and  slightly  covered  the  palatal 
portion  of  the  mouth.  The  teeth  which  were 
carved  from  the  tusks  of  the  walrus  were  ingen- 
iously shaped,  and  the  gold  pins  which  penetrated 
the  teeth  from  cutting  edge  through  the  main 
shaft  and  body,  penetrated  the  gold  plate  and  were 
soldered  to  the  latter  on  the  palatal  surface.  The 
spacing  between  the  teeth  so  closely  approximates 
nature  that  the  wearer  of  this  denture  could  use 
the  tooth-pick  to  good  advantage.  The  plate,  in- 
stead of  clumsily  enveloping  the  two  natural  molars, 
has  skillfully  fitted  gold  clasps  which  materially 
aided  in  keeping  the  denture  properly  positioned. 

The  second  case,  a  partial  upper  and  lower 
connected  by  means  of  spiral-springs,  is  an  intri- 
cate arrangement  but  demonstrates  to  a  dot  that 
the  primitive  dental  practitioners  of  America  were 
of  an  ingenious  order.  The  upper  partial  denture 
supplied  the  upper  labial  teeth,  while  the  two 
twelve-year  natural  molars  were  still  in  position. 
The  artificial  substitutes  were  of  two  kinds,  the 
anterior  six  teeth  were  carved  from  bone  and  at- 
tached with  gold,  similar  to  modern  methods;  the 
bicuspids  and  molars,  instead  of  being  carved  indi- 


190  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

vidually,  were  executed  in  one  solid  block,  with 
cross  groves  on  the  cutting  surface  to  represent 
the  sulci  of  the  natural  teeth  and  the  entire  block 
being  rivited  to  the  gold  plate  which  simply  fol- 
lowed the  alveolar  ridge.  Around  the  natural 
molars  were  clasped  two  gold-bands.  The  lower 
denture  was  attached  to  the  upper  one  with  gold 
spiral-springs.  This  denture,  like  the  upper,  was 
partial,  and  intended  to  supply  substitutes  for  the 
central  incisors,  one  bicuspid  on  the  right  and  two 
molars  on  the  left  side  of  the  jaw.  The  two  cen- 
tral substitutes  were  human  teeth  imbedded  in 
sockets  of' gold  which  received  the  respective  roots 
of  the  two  substitutes.  From  the  centrals  there 
was  a  continued  bar  of  platinum,  ending  in  clasps 
to  surround  the  lateral  and  bicuspid  natural  teeth. 
The  artificial  molars  and  bicuspids  were  made 
of  one  solid  block  of  bone  and  lines  of  demarca- 
tion, representing  the  divisional  spaces  of  the  teeth. 
The  natural  molar  on  the  right  side  was  encircled 
by  a  platinum  clasp. 

No  matter  how  unique  or  ungraceful  their  first 
attempts  after  their  ideal;  rising  from  step  to  step 
with  progressive  thought,  ever  keeping  in  view 
that  philosophical  principle  that  he  is  the  greatest 
philanthropist  who  helps  the  greatest  number, 
being  followed  from  time  to  time  and  succeeded  by 
others,  and  from  a  congress  of  thought  each  new 
idea  was  alike  heralded    to  all,  keeping  no  secrets 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  IQI 

but  ever  extending  the  olive-branch  of  fraternal 
peace  and  kindly  greeting.  The  public  becoming 
aware,  by  benefits  received  of  its  indispensibility, 
gave  to  them  encouragement  and  increased  patron- 
age, and  the  practicability  of  a  dental  college  was 
discussed. 

Enough  at  least  has  been  given  which  conclu- 
sively proves  that  dental  science,  though,  perhaps, 
rude  at  first,  is  not  of  very  recent  origin. 

No  matter  by  whom,  when,  or  by  what  means 
it  first  became  a  thought  and  opened  up  its  petals 
to  receive  the  warmth  and  genial  sunshine  of  a 
credulous  people,  it  stands  to-day  one  of  the  first 
and  noblest  of  the  sciences,  extending  and  taking 
in  its  embrace  almost  every  part  of  every  continent 
and  inhabited  islands  of  the  seas,  and  with  it  all 
pertaining  to  its  first  grand  idea — that  of  doing 
good  to  humanity.  But  not  until  the  eighteenth 
century  did  dentistry  become  the  subject  of  much 
critical  inquiry  and  thorough  investigation.  Men 
of  education  and  talent  devoted  themselves  to  it 
exclusively,  and  from  that  period  it  has  progressed 
rapidly  in  importance;  and  within  this  brief  period 
its  progress  has  been  so  rapid  that  to  understand 
and  expound  the  whole  extent  of  the  subject  is 
already  far  beyond  the  possible. 

To  the  American  dentists  is  due  the  glory  of 
establishing  nearly  all  the  strides  of  dental  ad- 
vancement and  placing  the   profession    in  a   com- 


192  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

manding  position.  The  mechanical  devices,  and 
various  labor-saving  appliances  and  materials  con- 
tributed by  them  to  the  advancement  of  dentistry, 
are  numerous  and  important,  the  mere  specification 
of  which  would  consume  hours  of  time. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  American  dona- 
tion to  dental  art  is  the  production  of  porcelain 
teeth.  This  industry  was  an  outgrowth  of  Den- 
tal Prosthesis.  Though  of  French  origin,  their 
perfection  is  due  entirely  to  the  untiring  efforts  of 
the  American  manufacturers. 

To  Drs.  A.  A.  Plantou  and  C.  W.  Peale  ^  of 
Philadelphia  must  be  awarded  the  credit  of  manu- 
facturing, in  1820,  the  first  porcelain  teeth  in  the 
country;  but  S.  W.  Stockton  of  Philadelphia  and 
James  Alcock  of  New  York  in  1850  began  their 
production  upon  a  more  extended  scale,  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  the  profession  at  large, 
and  thus  initiated  an  industry  which  has  gained 
remarkable  proportions.  The  present  degree  of 
perfection  in  moulding  and  enameling  the  teeth 
was  not  attained  until  some  years  later,  nor  was 
the  color  so  life-like,  or  the  shades  so  varied.  For 
many    years    after    the    introduction    of    porcelain 


*He  was  the  son  of  the  famous  Rambrandt  Peale,  and  C  W.  Peale 
is  to  be  remembered,  aside  from  his  attainments  in  Dental  Prosthesis, 
for  his  grand  display-  of  genius  in  the  painting-  of  an  authoritative 
portrait  of  Gen.  George  Washington.  C.  W.  Peale  was  a  universal 
genius.  He  was  successively  a  saddler,  silversmith,  watchmaker, 
dentist  and  portrait-painter,  in  which  latter  vocation  he  acquired  his 
most  enduring  reputation. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  1 93 

teeth  the  best  artists  were  unable  to  make  them 
sufficiently  perfect  in  form  and  in  color  to  give 
good  appearance  in  the  mouth.  The  porcelain 
teeth  were  indestructible  by  the  oral  secretions, 
while  the  then  popular  carved  blocks  of  ivory 
decayed,  and  became  offensive  and  were  eventually 
injurious.  This  latter  difficulty  with  the  ivory 
teeth  rendered  the  porcelain  teeth  very  desirable, 
and  in  consequence  improvement  in  their  manu- 
facture continued.  Americans  have  been  very 
successful  in  this  form  of  advance,  and  mainly 
instrumental  in  bringing  the  manufacture  to  its 
present  high  state  of  perfection.  So  far,  indeed, 
has  this  art  of  tooth  production  from  felspar,  silex 
and  kaolin  been  developed  that  any  dental  form 
and  coloring  desirable  can  be  rendered  so  as  to 
deceive  any  but  the  trained  eye  of  an  expert. 
These  improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  porcelain 
teeth  which  have  so  admirably  displayed  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  manufacturers  in  the  transparency  of 
the  tooth,  the  granular  appearance  and  flesh- 
like tint  of  the  gums,  and  the  unlimited  shades 
were  due  to  the  persistency  of  Dr.  Elias  Wildman 
of  Philadelphia,  who  began  his  numerous  experi- 
ments in  1837. 

In  1844  Samuel  S.  White,  a  nephew  of  Sam- 
uel W.  Stockton,  began  the  production  of  these 
teeth  in  Philadelphia,  and  this  was  the  initia- 
tory   step     in     an     enterprise    which    has    since 


194  I'HE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

grown  to  be  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

Numerous  improvements  are  accredited  to  ^Ir. 
S.  S.  White,  but  not  all  the  comment  does  he  reap, 
since  shortly  after  his  attempts  and  experiments 
H.  D.  Justi  of  Philadelphia,  believing  that  he,  too, 
saw  an  opportunity  for  improving  the  aesthetic 
effects  of  porcelain  teeth  laboriously  toiled  to  reach 
the  goal  of  perfection  in  the  yet  crude  art. 

Dentistry  seemed  destined  to  rise  as  a  learned 
science  and  profession;  and  able  artists  in  all  parts 
of  our  country  lent  a  helping  hand  to  establish  the 
truths  of  dental  science;  and  among  the  many 
depots,  shops  and  factories  which  have  aided  in 
this  good  work  we  find  those  of  Johnson,  Lund  & 
Co.,  Gideon  Sibley,  William  Tvl.  Speakman,  The 
Harvard  Dental  Company;  more  recently  the  Wil- 
mington Dental  Manufacturing  Company,  and  var- 
ious others  have  loomed  above  the  horizon,  and 
these,  too,  are  companies  whose  artists  are  highly 
skilled  in  ceramic  work. 

The  various  dental  companies  are  now  produc- 
ing all  the  various  appliances,  instruments  and 
materials;  it  is  estimated  that  not  less  than  100,000 
teeth  a  month,  or  nearly  12,000,000  per  annum 
are  manufactured  in  America  alone. 

All  this  present  perfection  and  completion 
has  not  been  broucrht  to  us  in  a  sincrle  birth,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  required  time,  patience,  talent  and 
expense. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 95 

About  the  same  time  that  the  several  dental 
companies  were  devoting  their  attention  to  the 
newly  discovered  art,  the  individual  dentists,  too, 
were  busy  calculating  on  the  self-same  subject. 
The  result  was  that  early  in  1850  Dr.  John  Allen, 
a  distinguished  dental  practitioner,  devised  a 
method  embracing  original  and  important  modifi- 
cations in  the  aesthetic  shapes,  colors  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  dental  substitutes.  The  exactness 
with. which  Dr.  Allen  represented  the  natural  gum- 
tissue  gave  to  his  process  and  disco\'ery  the  name 
of  Continuous  Gum  work.  The  intimate  but  later 
identification  of  Drs.  Hunter  and  Haskell  with 
continuous  gum  work  have  rendered  their  names 
familiar,  as  being  skilled  and  devoted  to  this 
specialty  of  Dental  Prosthesis;  and  their  respec- 
tive contributions  to  the  development  of  a  perfect 
process  in  the  departure  has  done  much  towards 
establishing  for  the  dental  profession  a  lasting 
glory. 

The  announcement  in  1851  of  Nelson  Good- 
year's  invention  for  making  the  hard-rubber  com- 
pound, substantially  termed  * 'Vulcanite,"  turned 
the  attention  of  those  interested  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  various  small  articles  for  use  and  ornament 
to  the  adoption  of  this  material  which  was  an- 
nounced as  a  substitute  for  horn,  bone  and  ivory, 
susceptible  of  being  colored  and  possessing  the 
plasticity     of     gutta-percha,    while     it     was     ex- 


196  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

empt   from   the   actions   of    heat,    cold  and  acids. 

In  1855  the  first  patent  was  obtained  for  mak- 
ing a  dental  plate  in  hard  rubber.  The  introduc- 
tion of  vulcanite  into  the  profession  materially- 
injured  the  general  tone  of  dexterity  and  science 
among  the  dentists;  the  ease  with  which  vulcanite 
is  worked  invited  many  into  the  profession  who 
were  utterly  unfit  and  incapable  of  scientifically- 
replacing  the  lost  organs.  Prior  to  the  Goodyear 
invention  the  dentist  was  obliged  to  be  more 
than  a  mere  mechanic,  since  the  various  metals 
were  then  used  as  bases  for  dentures. 

Celluloid,  like  vulcanized  rubber,  a  cheap  base 
for  artificial  dentures,  was  first  introduced  in  1869, 
and  during  the  existence  of  the  "rubber  patents" 
was  much  used  by  those  who  objected  to  becoming 
licensees  of  the  Goodyear  Rubber  Company.  The 
advantages  claimed  for  the  celluloid  were  its  un- 
limited artistic  possibilities,  resemblance  in  color 
to  the  natural  tissues,  readily  tolerated  by  mucous 
membrane,  elasticity  under  strain,  adaptability  for 
partial  or  complete  dentures  and  the  readiness  with 
which  it  could  be  applied  to  the  correction  or  con- 
cealment of  all  oral  deformities. 

But  celluloid  like,  we  hope,  rubber,  too,  -'has 
seen  its  days  of  triumph,"  and  every  dentist  who 
has  the  welfare  of  his  profession  at  heart  is  pro- 
nounced in  hi?  desire  to  see  all  cheap  and  injurious 
plastic  base-dentures  shelved,  thus   to  make  room 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  197 

for  the  furtherance  of  our  acquaintance  with  metals, 
minerals  and  numerous  other  materials  for  dental 
plates. 

An  incidental  but  most  important  advantage  to 
dentistry,  accompanying  the  revival  of  gold-crown 
and  bridge-work,  is  the  requirement  of  increased 
manipulative  and  artistic  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
operator.  The  character  of  a  large  proportion  of 
the  vulcanite  work  of  the  last  few  years  has  a  sul- 
phurous oder  about  it  suggestive  of  the  adage, 
"facilis  est  descensus  Averni."  To  such  a  facile 
method  of  constructing  artificial  dentures  is  due 
the  advent  of  a  class  of  dentists  who  have  "picked 
up  the  business"  in  a  few  months  of  untutored 
experiment.  To  clumsy,  disfiguring  dentures,  sa 
bulky  as  to  impair  speech,  and  so  incompletely 
finished  as  to  occasion  sore  mouths,  have  been 
chargeable  in  great  degree  the  discomforts  and 
diseases  attributed  to  the   cheaper  base-dentures. 

The  increasing  demand  for  dentures  on  gold 
bases  must  of  necessity  raise  the  standard  of  quali- 
fication for  dental  practice.  For  the  promotion  of 
this  most  desirable  end  the  dental  society  clinics, 
increasing  as  they  are,  alike  in  frequency  and  in 
interest,  have  become  potent  factors. 

If  you  possess  the  requisite  skill,  and  will  do 
yourself  the  justice  to  use  it,  you  can  make  even  a 
rubber  plate  that  will  not  disgrace  you,  and  get 
paid  for  it,  too.      While  visiting  different   offices  I 


1 98  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

have  often  been  amused  at  the  assumed  airs:  ''Oh, 
I  never  dirty  my  hands  with  that  class  of  work,  I 
leave  that  to  the  cheap  Johns,  or,  as  they  say  down 
South,  'I  have  a  nigger  to  do  my  plate  work.'" 
Occasionally  you  find  some  old  in  the  prefession  who 
delegate  the  "mechanical  to  the  shops."  Such 
almost  invariably  demonstrates  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  capable  of  constructing  a  perfect  artificial 
case.  The  renowned  Josephs  of  San  Francisco 
said:  "After  twenty  years'  experience,  the  first 
thing  I  would  impress  upon  a  tyro  is  that  fiddle- 
making  is  a  trade  but  violin-making  is  an  art." 
Tooth-filling  as  well  as  plate-making  is  too  often  a 
mere  trade,  but  properly  restoring  loss  with  arti- 
ficial teeth,  with  all  that  is  implied  in  the  opera- 
tion, is  the  acme  of  dental  art  if  there  is  any  art 
in  dentistry. 

To-day  the  vast  variety  in  shape,  size,  color, 
etc.,  of  the  porcelain  teeth,  gives  opportunity  for 
the  selection  of  forms  suitable  to  nearly  every  case 
which  presents  itself  to  the  general  practitioners. 
The  assortment  must  of  necessity  be  very  large 
and  varied  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  prosthetic 
dentist. 

Porcelain  is  a  material  in  which  the  beauty  of 
the  result  well  repays  the  highest  exercise  of  art. 
It  has  been  for  centuries  the  favorite  material  for 
expressing  the  poetry  of  form.  To  the  famous  Etru- 
rian vases  of  "antiquity,  the   exquisite  gems  of  the 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  1 99 

majolica  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  be  named 
in  proof  of  the  fitness  of  pocelain  to  embody  the 
conception  of  genius. 

Dental  porcelain  is  worthy  of  such  associations; 
not  only  like  these  does  it  delight  the  eye  and  give 
evidence  of  high  aesthetic  cultivation,  but  it  adds 
to  beauty,  the  charm  of  usefulness. 

It  is  customary  to  attribute  the  rapid  growth  of 
dental  art,  since  1840,  to  dental  associations,  col- 
leges, journals  and  its  didactic  literature — and 
worth  much  truth.  But  to  porcelain  it  owes  its 
very  existence  as  an  aesthetic  art,  and  the  largest 
extent  and  utility  as  a  prosthetic  science.  It  was 
altogether  impossible  for  perishable  human  teeth, 
or  their  wretched  imitations  in  ivory,  to  offer  such 
tempting  fac-similes  of  nature  as  we  meet  in  proce- 
lain  productions. 

The  dental  depots  not  only  rendered  service  by 
superior  excellence  of  surgical  instruments,  and 
prosthetic  appliances  and  materials,  but  they  di- 
rectly benefited  the  science  and  art  of  dentistry  by 
releasing  the  practitioners  from  the  manufacturing 
toil,  and  gave  them  time  for  the  acquirement  of  in- 
creased knowledge  and  skill  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  dental  science. 

Few  people  can  comprehend,  and  fewer  still 
thoroughly  appreciate,  the  many  noble  favors  the 
dental  profession  deals  out  to  suffering  human- 
ity.     Among  the   myriads  of  grand   achievements 


200  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

wrought,  very  few  excel  the  prosthetic  accomplish- 
ments in  the  cure  and  relief  of  defojmed  palatine 
•organs,  or  what  is  known  to  surgeons  by  the  name 
of  cleft-palate. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  distressing  deformities 
to  which  the  human  frame  is  liable.  The  unfortu- 
nate sufferer  is  compelled,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
be  an  alien  among  his  fellow  creatures;  an  object 
•of  compassion  to  the  considerate,  he  is  often  made 
painfully  conscious  of  his  deformity  by  heartless 
companions.  And  were  he  gifted  with  eloquence 
•of  Demosthenes  or  Webster  he  could  make  little 
more  use  of  his  endowments  than  a  mute.  Fortu- 
nately this  painful  defect,  which  may  be  either 
accidental  or  congenial,  is  no  longer  reckoned  one 
•of  the  incurable,  since  Dental  Prosthesis  has  risen 
to  the  present  pinacle  of  perfection.  The  same  is 
true  with  reference  to  irregular  teeth  and  malfor- 
mations of  the  jaw  in  general. 

Probably  no  feature  in  the  annals  of  dentistry 
is  worthy  of  so  much  comment  and  merits  such 
'deep  consideration  as  the  subject  of  crown  and 
bridge-work.  For  the  past  few  years  it  has  been 
a  subject  of  overwhelming  magnitude,  and  to-day 
is  the  tidal  wave  in  Dental  Prosthesis,  stirring 
to  eloquence  its  admirers  and  agitating  the  dental 
fraternity  in  an  effort  to  establish  its  worth  or  use- 
.lessness. 

In  searching  for  the  history  of  crown-work  we 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  201 

•are  utterly  dumfounded,  and  upon  becoming  cog- 
nizable with  its  antiquity  we  are  almost  prompted 
to  chronicle  it  as  a  lost  art  recklessly  omitted  in 
the  list  of  ancient  advertisements.  The  operation 
■of  pivoting  teeth,  synonomous  to  our  modern 
crowns,  is  one  of  the  primitive  methods  of  replac- 
ing lost  natural  ones,  and  it  is  indeed  debatable 
whether  the  plate  preceded  the  pivot  or  vice 
versa. 

Historical  theses  unfortunately  left  but  few 
"foot-prints  on  the  sands  of  time,"  and  in  conse- 
quence we  are  much  at  loss  as  to  the  data  of  the 
subject.  The  artificial  replacement  of  the  loss  of  a 
portion  of  the  teeth  by  crowns  was  first  written 
about  Robert  Woofendale  in  1783,  when  he  wrote 
regarding  the  act  of  joining  artificial  crowns  to  the 
roots  of  natural  teeth;  he  tells  that  where  the 
•enamel  had  suffered  severe  destruction  it  was 
advisable  to  cut  off  the  injured  remaining  portion 
■of  same  and  replace  by  means  of  an  artificial  one, 
and  he  dwelt  elaborately  on  the  wonderful  sta- 
bility of  such  a  piece  of  work.  It  is  extremely 
•difficult,  indeed,  almost  impossible  to  arrive  at 
anything  like  certainty  in  determining  priority  of 
invention  or  introduction  of  any  improvements 
•earlier  than  1839,  at  which  date  recorded  history 
of  dentistry  was  inaugurated   by  a   dental   journal. 

Statements  are  made  pro  and  con  relative  to 
crown-work  and  its  early  popularity.      Scrap  den- 


202  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

tal  literature  bears  witness  that  in  1804  current 
newspapers  contained  lengthy  articles  on  the  "art 
of  restoring  roots  of  teeth  by  means  of  wire-pivots, 
wooden-pivots,  cotton-wrapped-pivots  and  screw- 
pivots." 

I  deem  it  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
description  of  the  numerous  new  and  improved 
modern  crowns,  and  it  would  be  an  extensive  work 
that  would  treat  of  each  and  every  method  of  con- 
struction. Suffice  it  to  say  that  Drs.  Lawrence, 
Foster,  Bean,  Richardson,  Buttner,  Thomas,  Leech, 
Webb,  Williams,  Hay,  Boice,  Weston,  Carman, 
Hunter,  Bonwill,  Davis,  How,  Logan,  Richmond, 
Land  and  Evans  have  contributed  a  commendable 
amount  towards  bringing  the  artificial  crown  within 
the  rays  of  perfection. 

True,  we  have  seen  marked  advancements  in 
t-he  construction  and  appliance  of  the  various 
crown  substitutes,  and  bow  in  all  homage  to  pay 
tribute  to  those  great  minds  who  conceived  the 
grand  and  satisfactory  results.  Shall  we  honor 
most  the  practitioners  who  first  wrought  the  happy 
means  or  who  later  perfected  it,  is  one  of  those 
questions  which  shall  be  interesting  grounds  for 
debate. 

As  to  the  history  of  bridge-work  we  are  about 
as  knowing  as  can  be  expected  on  account  of  ex- 
isting circumstances;  in  brief,  the  developments  of 
this  departure  are  not  unlike  those  of  crown-work, 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  203 

and  the  same  catalogue  of  dentists'  names  adorn 
its  tabular  records,  with  the  exception  that  the 
names  of  Drs.  Bing,  Case,  Brown,  Starr,  Ludwig 
and  Melotte  are  directly  connected  with  the  numer- 
ous steps  of  improvement. 

On  the  system  of  bridge-work  Dr.  Bennett 
makes  these  few  and  worthy  remarks :-' 

"Until  within  a  few  years  dentistry  consisted 
chiefly  of  fillings  and  plates,  neither  of  which  have 
always  met  the  requirements  in  every  case.  Dur- 
ing the  last  decade  there  has  been  rapidly  devel- 
oped what  may  be  properly  called  a  third  branch 
of  dentistry,  closely  related  to  the  preceding, 
which  has  been  practiced  with  varying  degrees  of 
success  and  failure,  and  has  been  advocated  and 
opposed  with  almost  all  degrees  of  knowledge  and 
prejudice.  This  new  system,  which  is,  strictly 
speaking,  an  old  system  revived  and  greatly  im- 
proved, is  called  crown  and  bridge-work.  Though 
resembling  dental  prosthesis  more  than  operative, 
this  mode  of  restoring  lost  organs  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  both,  and  begins  where  filling  ends. 
Filling  by  restoring  lost  tissue  attempts  to  save  the 
crown,  while  crowning  may  be  said  incidentally  at 
least  to  save  the  root.  If  it  can  be  shown  that 
this  new  system  of  prosthesis  has  a  scientific  basis 
and  conforms  to  correct  mechanical  principles, 
time  and  practice  can  be  depended  on  to  devolop 

*Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XIX.,  June. 


204  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

skill  in  the  art  of  construction.  Of  the  few  things 
we  know  with  certainty  about  dentistry,  one  of  the 
first  is  that  any  mechanism  that  ignores  the  facts 
of  science,  or  does  not  comply  with  conditions  and 
meet  requirements,  must  inevitably  fail. 

''Though  I  think  that  this  new  system  of  sub- 
stitution has  been  well  named,  yet  the  term  bridge- 
work  fs  associated  in  many  minds  with  all  that  is 
discreditable  to  the  dentist  and  disgusting  to  the 
patient.  While  not  strictly  correct  in  all  cases, 
this  new  method  might  not  inaptly  be  termed  'con- 
tinuous crown-work' — a  name  that  perhaps  would 
weaken  some  of  the  opposition  and  prejudice  that 
bridge-work  has  encountered." 

DENTAL     EDUCATION.^ 

It  was  not  until  1839  that  any  movement  in  the 
way  of  organization  was  made  on  the  part  of 
American  dentists  to  elevate  their  profession  to  a 
strictly  educational  basis.  In  view  of  uniting  the 
widely  separated  members  of  the  profession,  a 
medium  was  established  in  the  form  of  the  "Ameri- 
can JouFnal  and  Library  of  Dental  Science."  The 
journal  was  published  in  Baltimore  and  ably  edited 

♦The  author  would  recommend  for  the  reader's  consideration  the 
following  valuable  papers  on  "dental  education": 

Trans,  of  Am.  Dent.  Associ.,  1891-1892,  Sec.  II.,  b^-  L.  Ottofy,  D.  D.S. 

Dental  Review,  vol.  IV.,  p.  664,  by  C.  N.  Pierce,  D.  D.  S. 

Ibid,  p.  672,  by  W.  H.  Atkinson,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 

Ibid,  p.  677,  by  A.  H,  Thompson,  D.  D.  S. 

Ibid,  p.  692,  by  R.  Ottolengui,  D.  D.  S. 

Ibid,  vol.  v.,  p.  144,  by  C.  N.  Johnson,  D.  D.  S. 

Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XXXIV.,  p.  92,  by  C  E.  Bentlej-,  D.  D.  S. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  205 

by  Chapin  A.  Harris  and  Eleazer  Parmly.  In  con- 
nection with  this  movement  it  was  the  ambition  of 
Dr.  Harris  to  organize  a  dental  school  as  an  ad- 
junct to  the  medical  department  of  the  University 
of  Maryland.  The  practice  of  dentistry  at  this 
time,  however,  being  with  few  exceptions  at  a  very 
low  ebb,  the  faculty  of  the  university  rejected  the 
proposition  of  Dr.  Harris,  they  giving  as  an  excuse, 
*'that  the  subject  of  dentistry  was  of  little  conse- 
quence, and  thus  justified  their  unfavorable  action." 
The  rejection  seemed  to  give  Dr.  Harris  new 
energy  and  stimulated  in  him  a  new  desire,  and  as 
a  result  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery 
was  established. 

The  origination  of  institutions  for  the  teaching 
of  dentistry  was  due  to  the  persistent  and  deter- 
mined efforts  of  a  few  men  of  markedly  liberal  views 
of  the  profession.  The  great  necessity  for  some 
radical  change  in  the  method  of  imparting  dental 
instruction  was  sufficiently  evident  to  any  observ- 
ing and  impartial  mind  long  before  1840.  The 
practice  of  taking  private  students  was  then  every- 
where in  vogue,  and  little  could  be  said  in  its  dis- 
favor so  long  as  the  studentship  was  properly  con- 
ducted and  the  teacher  imparted  to  his  disciple 
that  which  he  himself  knew  on  the  subject;  and 
danger  in  this  direction  could  not  be  apprehended 
when  certain  men  of  established  reputation  were 
the  teachers.      But   &uch,    unfortunatel}',   was    not 


206  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

always  the  case.  The  eminent  dentists  of  that 
period  charged  extremely  high  prices  for  student- 
ship. Dr.  Parmly  offered  to  "receive  students 
and  to  render  them  fit  for  practice  for  one  thousand 
dollars."*  And  other  dentists  of  reputation  asked 
similar  fees.  Such  high  charges  were  of  them- 
selves sufficient  to  debar  the  great  majority  from 
seeking  dental  education,  and  consequently  were 
either  forced  to  enter  the  profession  without 
knowledge  of  the  art  or  science,  or  pay  in  advance 
a  fee  which  in  those  days  meant  a  fortune.  This 
state  of  affairs  was  naturally  viewed  with  regret 
by  such  as  were  above  professional  jealousies  and 
secrecy  in  methods  which  then  almost  universally 
prevailed.  Liberal  dentists  strove  to  induce  a 
change  in  this  condition  of  things.  The  quickest 
and  most  surely  effectual  methods  to  produce  the 
desired  result  appeared  in  establishing  a  dental 
college. 

The  labors  of  that  noble  man,  Chapin  A.  Harris, 
whose  name  should  be  all  the  more  honored  for 
having  devoted  his  time  and  his  talents  less  to  the 
accumulation  of  wealth  than  to  the  development  of 
dentistry  into  a  scientific  profession,  together  with 
his  associates,  lifted  the  practice  of  dentistry  from 
that  obscure  empiricism  which  had  largely  charac- 
terized it  into  the  clear  light  of  scientific  inquiry 
and   demonstration,   by  laying   that  foundation  in 

♦American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2nd  S.,  vol.  II.,  p.  98. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  20; 

the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  upon 
which  our  system  of  dental  education  has  been 
built. 

So  long  as  the  various  processes  of  dental 
surgery  and  laboratory  continued  to  be  held  as 
carefully  guarded  secrets  which  might  be  filched 
from  one  by  his  neighbor,  engendering  a  narrow- 
minded  jealousy  of  every  means  and  appliance  of 
which  one  had  not  the  monopoly,  so  long  there 
could  be  neither  professional  character  nor  stand- 
ard; and  to  the  disciple  of  such  a  school  it  was 
enough  to  be  as  his  master.  But  the  leaven  of  the 
old  order  of  things  began  to  work.  The  aspira- 
tion for  better  instruction,  necessary  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  professional  standing,  began  to  imbue 
the  minds  of  younger  practitioners,  encouraged  by 
the  success  of  their  seniors  and  incited  by  the 
desire  of  popular  approval. 

The  motives  of  Dr.  Harris  and  his  associates 
in  this  undertaking  are  set  forth  in  Dr.  Harris' 
introductory  lecture,  delivered  on  the  occasion  of 
the  opening  of  the  college,  in  the  year  1840.  Of 
the  state  of  dentistry  at  this  time  Dr.  Harris  says: 

"No  credential  or  evidence  of  competency  hav- 
ing been  looked  for  or  required,  the  profession  has 
become  crowded  with  individuals  ignorant  alike  of 
its  theory  and  practice;  and  hence  its  character 
for  respectability  and  usefulness  has  suffered  in 
public    estimation,     and     a    reproach     has     been 


208  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

brought  upon  it  which  it  would  not  otherwise 
have  deserved. 

"The  community  is  at  present  unable  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  well-educated  and  skillful 
practitioner  and  the  merest  pretender— and  until 
it  shall  be  able  to  do  this  more  or  less  of  the 
reproach  that  is  brought  upon  the  pursuit  by  the 
latter  will  be  visited  upon  the  former, 

"Accessible  as  has  been  the  calling  of  the 
dentist  to  all  that  were  disposed  to  engage  in  it, 
and  that,  too,  without  regard  to  qualification,  it 
has  been  resorted  to  by  the  ignorant  and  illiterate, 
and,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  in  too  many  instances,  by 
unprincipled  individuals,  until  it  now  numbers  in 
the  United  States  about  twelve  hundred,  and  of 
which  I  think  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  not 
more  than  one-sixth  possess  any  just  claims  to  a 
correct  or  thorough  knowledge  of  the  pursuit. 
That,  under  such  circumstances,  it  should  occupy 
a  place  in  the  world's  estimation  inferior  to  that  to 
which  it  would  otherwise  be  entitled,  is  not  a  sub- 
ject of  wonder. 

"Dentistry"  he  characterizes  as  "a  most  useful 
and  valuable  department  of  medicine;"  as  a 
"branch  of  surgery. 

"Of  the  qualifications  necessary  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  a  dental  practitioner,  and  the  time 
required  for  their  acqiiisition,  few  seem  to  be 
aware.      On     this     subject    an     erroneous    opinion 


OF    DENTAL    TROSTHESIS.  209 

seems  pretty  generally  to  prevail.  A  little  me- 
chanical tact  or  dexterity  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  all  that  is  requisite  to  a  practitioner  of  dental 
surgery,  and  that  this  could  be  obtained  in,  at 
most,  a  few  weeks.  The  prevalence  of  this  belief 
has  given  countenance  to  the  assumption  of  the 
profession  by  individuals  totally  disqualified  to 
take  upon  themselves  the  exercise  of  its  compli- 
cated and  difficult  duties.  But  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  day  is  not  remote  when  it  will  be  required 
of  those  to  whom  this  department  of  surgery  shall 
be  intrusted  to  be  educated  men,  and  well  in- 
structed in  its  theoretical  and  practical  principles. 
Elevate  the  standard  of  the  qualifications  of  the 
dental  surgeon  to  a  level  with  those  of  a  medical 
practitioner  and  the  results  of  his  practice  will  be 
always  beneficial,  which  at  present  are  frequently 
the  reverse.  Require  of  the  practitioner  of  dental 
surgery  to  be  educated  in  the  collateral  sciences 
of  anatomy  and  physiology,  surgery,  pathology 
and  therapeutics,  and  the  sphere  of  his  usefulness 
and  his  respectability  will  be  increased." 

With  these  views  the  faculty  entered  upon 
their  work,  with  earnest  promises  of  faithfulness 
to  the  important  trust  they  had  assumed.  "Aware," 
said  Professor  Harris,  "of  the  responsibility 
that  rests  upon  them,  the  faculty  will  spare  no 
efforts  to  make  it  creditable  to  the  State  that 
created  it  and  beneficial  to  the  public.      Conscious 


2  10  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

that  its  claims  to  respectability  and  usefulness  will 
depend  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  dis- 
charge their  duties,  it  will  ,  be  their  constant 
endeavor  to  impart  not  only  correct,  but  thorough, 
theoretical  and  practical  information;  persuaded 
that  without  this  it  is  impossible  for  any  to  prac- 
tice the  art  with  credit  to  themselves,  or  for  the 
benefit  of  their  employers,  they  are  resolved  to 
admit  none  to  the  honors  of  the  institution  except 
such  as  possess  it.  In  short,  they  are  determined 
that  no  reproach  shall  rest  upon  them  for  fixing  a 
standard  of  qualification  that  shall  not  at  once  be 
respectable,  and  entitle  those  coming  up  to  it  to 
the  confidence  of  an  enlightened  community." 

Dr.  Harris'  proposition  was  a  bold  one,  requir- 
ing a  degree  of  courage  not  possessed  by  the  aver- 
age .man.  It  was  an  untried  field;  the  prospects 
for  emoluments  for  the  pioneers  were  not  inviting, 
and  failure  would  engulf  all  concerned  in  irremedi- 
able ruin. 

In  the  first  scholastic  class  there  were  two  grad- 
uates, Robert  Arthur  and  R.  Covington  jNIackall. 
Thus  in  due  time  the  college  labeled  with  dignity 
and  honor  a  small  class  as  "Doctors  of  Dental 
Surgery." 

Thus  a  system  of  education  was  initiated  which 
immediately  placed  the  practitioners  of  dentistry 
upon  an  equal  footing  with  other  liberal  profes- 
sions.     All   hail   the  banner  of  the  old  Baltimore 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  211 

College  of  Dental  Surgery!  the  progenitor  of  much 
good  and  the  Alma  Mater  of  Alma  Maters,  claim- 
ing among  her  collegiate  alumni  your  adopted 
mother. 

Hence,  with  this  college  as  the  nucleus,  many 
prototypes  have  since  been  generated,  and  the 
good  effect  these  Various  institutions  have  on  the 
public  none  can  more  sincerely  testify  than  suffer- 
ing humanity.  The  profession  as  well  as  its  many 
faithful  representatives  have  steadily  and  surely 
risen,  never  again  to  fall. 

As  a  matter  of  history  we  append  the  names  of 
all  doctors  who  have  filled  the  chair  of  Dean,  Pro- 
fessor of  Operative  Dentistry,  and  Professor  of 
Dental  Prosthesis.  In  the  Baltimore  College  of 
Dental  Surgery:"^  Deans — Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.  D., 
1840-1841;  Thomas  E.  Bond,  M.  D.,  1841-1842; 
Washington  R.  Handy,  M.  D.,  1842-1853;  Philip 
H.  Austen,  M.  D.,  1 853-1 865;  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1865-1882;  Richard  B.  Winder, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,.1882  .  Professors  of  Oper- 
ative Dentistry — Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.  D.,  1840- 
1846;  Amos  Westcoat,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1846- 
1849;  C.  O.  Cone,  M.  D.,  1849-1852;  Alfred  A. 
Bandy,  M.  D.,  1852-1856;  Edward  Maynard,  M.  D., 
1856-1860;  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1860- 
1879;  Richard  B.  Winder,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1879- 
1884;     John    C.     Coyle,     D.     D.     S.,     1884-1888; 

♦Informed  by  Dr.  R.B.  Winder. 


212  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Richard  B.  Winder,    M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,    1888 . 

Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — Chapin  A.  Harris, 
M.  D.,  1840-1846;  Amos  Westcoat,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.,  1846-1849;  C.  O.  Cone,  M.  D.,  1849- 
1852;  Philip  H.  Austen,  M.  D.,  1852-1873;  James 
B.  Hodgkin,  D.  D.  S.,  1873-1889;  William  B. 
Finney,  D.  D.  S.,   1889 . 

The  Ohio  Dental  College"^  of  Cincinnati  was 
chartered  in  1845  ^^^^  began  its  first  session  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  Deans — Jesse  W. 
Cook,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  J.  Taft,  D.  D.  S. ;  H.  A. 
Smith,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry 
—James  Taylor,  D.  D.  S. ;  J.  Taft,  D.  D.  S. ;  H. 
A.  Smith,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental  Pros- 
thesis— James  Taylor,  D.  D.  S. ;  W.  H.  Hunter, 
D.  D.  S. ;  John  Allen,  D.  D.  S. ;  H.  R.  Smith,  D. 
D.  S. ;  J.  R.  Clayton,  D.  D.  S. ;  Frank  Bell,  D.  D. 
S. ;  W.  Van  Antwerp,  D.  D.  S.  ;  Grant  MoWy- 
neaux,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Philadelphia  College  of  Dental  Surgeryt 
was  the  first  college  in  Philadelphia  and  was  char- 
tered in  1850.  The  school  had  four  sessions  and 
in  1856  ceased  to  exist.  Dean — Elisha  Townsend, 
M.  B.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry 
— Elisha  Townsend,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor 
of  Dental  Prosthesis — T.  L.  Buckingham,  ?vl.  D. 

The   New   York   College    of    Dental    SurgeryJ 

^Informed  by  Dr.  H.  A.  Smith. 
+Dental  and  Oral  Science,  Dexter,  p.  184 
+Ibid,  p.  183. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  21  3 

Opened  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  chartered  by  the 
State  in  1852.*  Dean— A.  Westcoat,  M.  D.  Pro- 
fessor of  Operative  Dentistry — W.  Dalrymple, 
D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis— W.  Dal- 
rymple, D.  D.  S. 

The  Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental  Surgeryt  of 
Philadelphia  was  chartered  in  1856.  It  was  the 
result  of  the  downfall  of  the  old  Philadelphia 
College  of  Dental  Surgery.  Deans — Elisha  Town- 
send,  M.  D. ,  D.  D.  S. ;  Thomas  L.  Buchingham, 
M.  D. ;  William  Calvert,  D.  D.  S. ;  C.  N.  Pierce, 
D.  D.  S.  (eight  years);  Elias  Wildman,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S. ;  Charles  Essig,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  C.  N. 
Pierce,  T).  D.  S.  (sixteen  years).  Professors  of 
Operative    Dentistry — Elisha    Townsend,    M.    D., 

D.  D.  S.;  J.  H.  McOuillen,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  C. 
N.  Pierce,  D.    D.    S. ;    James    Truman,   D.   D.    S. ; 

E.  T.  Darby,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  C.  N.  Pierce, 
D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — T.  L. 
Buckingham,  M.  D. ;  William  Calvert,  D.  D.  S. ; 
Elias  Wildman,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  Charles  Essig, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  Wilbur  F.  Litch,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S. 

The  Philadelphia  Dental  CollegeJ  was  chartered 
in  1863  and  is  located  in  Philadelphia.  Deans — J. 
H.  McQuillen,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1863-1879;  D.  D. 
Smith,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1 879-1 880;   J.  E.  Garret- 

*Becanie  defunct  in  1855. 
tlnformed  by  Dr.  C.  N.  Pierce. 
^Informed  by  Dr.  T.  C.  Stellwagren. 


2  14  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

son,    M.  D.,    D.  D.  S.,    1880 .      Professors   of 

Operative  Dentistry — C.  A.  Kingsbury,  D.  D.  S., 
1863-1865;  George  W.  Ellis,  D.  D.  S.,  1865-1866; 
Thomas  C.  Stelhvagen,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1869- 
1879;  D.  D.  Smith,    D.  D.  S.,    1879-1881;    S.    H. 

Guilford,  D.  D.  S.,  Ph.  D.,  1881 .      Professors 

of  Dental  Prosthesis — Thomas  Wardle,  D.  D.  S., 
1863-1867;  D.  D.  Smith,  D.  D.  S.,  1867-1881;  S. 
H.  Guilford,  D.  D.  S.,  Ph.  D.,  1881  . 

The  New  York  College  of  Dentistry*  was  char- 
tered in  1865  and  began  its  first  session  in  New 
York  City  in  November,  1866.  Deans — Norman 
W.    Kingsley,   1866-1869;  Frank  Abbott,    M.   D., 

1869 .      Professors   of   Operative   Dentistry — 

\V.  H.  Dwinelle,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1866-1867; 
Edward  Dunning,  1867- 1868;  Frank  Abbott,  M.  D., 
1868 .  Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — Nor- 
man W.  Kingsley,  1866- 1869;  C.  A.  Woodward, 
1869-1873;  C.  A.  Marvin,  D.  D.  S.,  1873-1877; 
J.  Bond  Littig,  D.  D.  S.,   1879 . 

The  Missouri  Dental  Colleget  was  chartered  in 
1866  and  is  located  in  St.  Louis.  Deans — Homer 
Judd,  M.  D.,  1 866- 1 874;  C.  W.  Rivers,  D.  D.  S., 
1874-1875;  W.  H.    Eames,    D.    D.    S.,  1875-1878; 

H.    H.    Mudd,    M.    D.,    1878 .      Professors    of 

Operative  Dentistry — H.  E.  Peebles,  D.  D.  S., 
1 866- 1 869;  H.  S.  Chase,  M.   D.,  D.   D.    S.,  1869- 

♦Informed  by  Dr.  Frank  Abbott. 

Unformed  by  Dr.  A.  H.  Fuller. 

Dental  Department  of  Washing-ton  University. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  21  5 

1874;  C.  W.  Rivers,  D.  D.  S.,  1874-1875;  I. 
Forbes,  D.  D.  S.,  1875-1877;  Homer  Judd,  M.  D., 
1877-1878;  J.  Ward  Hall,    D.    D.    S.,    1878-1879; 

A.  H.  Fuller,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1879 .  Pro- 
fessors of  Dental  Prosthesis — W.  H.  Fames,  D.  D. 
S.,  1866-1875;  A.  H.  Fuller,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S., 
1875-1876;  M.  A.  Bartleson,  D.  D.  S.,  1876-1877; 
H.  H.  Keith,  D.  D.  S.,  1877-1880;  W.  N.  Mor- 
rison, D.  D.  S.,  1880-1884;  J.  G.  Harper,  D.  D.  S., 
1884 . 

The  New  Orleans  Dental  College'^  was  chartered 
in  1861  and  ceased  to  exist  in  1878.  Deans — John 
S.  Clark,  D.  D.  S. ;  Andrew  F.  McLain,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — A. 
F.  McLain,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  W.  F.  Chandler,  D. 
D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — G.  J. 
P'redrichs,  D.  D.  S. ;  Charles  E.  Kells,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  School  of  Harvard  Universityt  was 
chartered  in  1867  and  the  school  is  located  in 
Boston.      Deans — Nathan  C.  Keep,  M.  D. ;  Thomas 

B.  Hitchcock,  M.  D. ;  Thomas  H.  Chandler,  A.  M., 
D.  M.  D.  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — 
George  T.  Moffatt,  M.  D. ;  L.  D.  Shepard,  D.  D. 
S. ;  Thomas  Fillebrown,  M.  D.,  D.  M.  D.  Profes- 
sors of  Dental  Prosthesis — Nathan  C.  Keep,  M.  D. ; 
Thomas  H.  Chandler,  A.  M.,  D.  M.  D. 

The  Boston   Dental  College^  was  chartered   in 

♦Became  defunct  in  1877. 
tinformed  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Chandler. 
+lnformed  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Follett. 


2l6  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

1868  and  is  located  in  Boston.  Dean — J.  A.  Fol- 
lett,  M.  D.  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — 
I.  J.  Wetherbee,  D.  D.  S. ;  William  Baker,  D.  D. 
S.;  J.  H.  Daly,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental 
Prosthesis— S.  J.  McDougall,  M.  D. ;  H.  F.  Bishop, 
D.  D.  S. ;  N.  N.  Noyes.  D.  D.  S. ;  A.  Lawrence, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  J.  K.  Knight,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Maryland  Dental  College-  was  founded  in 
1873  and  is  located  in  Baltimore.  Deans — R.  B, 
Winder,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — ¥.. 
P.  Keech,  D.  D.  S. ;  H.  G.  Ulrich,  D.  D.  S. ;  F. 
J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental 
Prosthesis,  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  College, t  University  of  Michigan, 
Avas  instituted  in  1875,  ^^^  established  in  Ann 
Arbor.  Dean — J.  Taft,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of 
Operative  Dentistry — J.  Taft,  D.  D.  S.,  and  J.  A. 
Watling,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental  Prosthe- 
5is_J.  A.  Watling,  D.  D.  S. ;  N.  S.  Hoi^,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Indiana  Dental  College^  was  chartered  in 
1878  and  is  located  in  Indianapolis.  Secretaries — 
J.  E.  Cravens,    1879-1889;    J.    N.    Hurty,    M.   D., 

Ph.    D.,     1 889- 1 892;    J.    E.    Cravens,     1892  . 

Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — J.  E.  Cravens, 
1879-1889;  J.  R.  Clayton,  D.  D.  S.,  1889-1891; 
J.    E.  Cravens,    1891  .      Professors   of  Dental 

•Dental  and  Oral  Science— Dexter,  p.  194. 
Unformed  by  Dr.  J.  Taft. 
tinforraed  bv  Dr.  J.  E.  Cravens. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS  217 

Prosthesis — ^Joseph  Richardson,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S., 
1879-1882;  T.  S.  Hacker,  D.  D.  S.,  1882-1892;  E. 
E.  Reese,  D.  D.  S.,  1892-1893;  R.  T.  Oliver, 
D.  D.  S.,   1893  . 

Dental  Department  of  the  Pennsylvania  Uni- 
versity* was  chartered  in  1878  and  is  located  in 
Philadelphia.      Deans — Charles    J.    Essig,    M.    D., 

D.  D.  S.,    1878-1882;  James   Truman,   1882 . 

Professors     of     Operative      Dentistry — Edwin     J. 

Darby,  M.  D.,    D.    D.    S.,    1878 .      Professor 

of  Dental  Prosthesis — Charles  J.  Essig,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.,  1878 . 

The  Dental  Department  of  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sityt  was  organized  in  1879  and  is  located  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.  Dean— W.  H.  Morgan,  M.  D.,  D.  D. 
S. ;  Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — J.  C.  Ross, 
D.  D.  S.;  H.  W.  Morgan,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Pro- 
fessor of  Dental  Prosthesis — R.  R.  Freeman,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S. 

The  Chicago  College  of  Dental  Surgery!  was 
chartered  in  1882,  and  was  the  first  dental  college 
established      in     Chicago.        Dean — Truman     W. 

Brophy,     1882    .       Professors    of    Operative 

Dentistry— G.  H.  Cushing,  D.  D.  S.,  1882-1889; 
Edmund  Noyes,  D.  D.  S.,  1889-1890;  C.  N.  John- 
son, L.D.  S.,  D.  D.  S.,    1890 .      Professors  of 

♦Informed  hy  Dr.  James  Truman, 
tinformed  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Morg-an. 
^Informed  by  Dr.  Truman  W.  Brophy. 
Dental  Department  of  Lake  Forest  University. 


2l8  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

Dental  Prosthesis— L.  P.  Haskell,  1882-1886;  W. 
B.  Ames,  D.  D.  S.,  1886-1890;  C.  S.  Case,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.,  1890 . 

The  Dental  Department  of  Iowa  University- 
was  chartered  in  1882  and  is  located  in  Iowa. 
Deans— L.  C.  Ingersoll,  A.  M.,  D.  D.  S. ;  A.  O. 
Hunt,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry 
— W.  O.  Kulp,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental 
Prosthesis— A.  O.  Hunt.  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  Department  of  Maryland  Univer- 
sity^ was  founded  in  1882  and  is  located  in  Balti- 
more. Dean — F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  A.  M.,  !M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry — F.  S. 
A.  Gorgas,  A.  M..  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of 
Dental  Prosthesis— James  H.  Harris,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Northwestern  College  of  Dental  Surgeryf 
was  chartered  in  1885  and  is  located  in  Chicago. 
Deans— I.  Clendenen,  D.  D.  S.,  1885-1886;  J.  F. 
Austin,  D.  D.  S.,  1886-1887;  Joseph  Haven, 
M.  D.,  1887-1889;  B.  Grant  Jefferies,  M.  D.,  Ph.  G., 
1889-1890;  R.  \V.  Clarkson,  A.  M.,  D.  D.  S., 
1890-1891;  B.  Grant  Jefferies,  Ph.  G.,  M.  D.,  C.  M., 

1 891  .      Professors   of   Operative   Dentistry — 

J.  F.  Austin,  D.  D.  S.,  1885-1887;  R.  W.  Clark- 
son,  A.  M.,  D.  D.  S.,  1887-1888;  Emos  J.  Perry, 
D.  D.  S.,  1 888- 1 889;  R.  W.  Clarkson,  A.  M., 
D.  D.   S.,   1889-1891;  J.    L.    Newman,    D.    D.    S., 


♦Informed  by  Dr.  F.  J.  S.  Gorg-as. 
tlnformed  by  Dr.  B.  Grant  Jefferies. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.                       219 
1891-1892;  C.  C.  Whitmore,  D.  D.  S.,  1892 . 


Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — Byron  D.  Palmer, 
D.  D.  S.,  1885-1889;  N.  J.  Roberts,  D.  D.  S., 
1889-1891;  C.  C.  Whitmore,  D.  D.  S.,  1891-1892; 
B.  Joseph  Roberts,  D.  D.  S.,  1892 . 

The  Dental  Department  of  Kentucky  Univer- 
sity'*" was  organized  in  1886  and  is  located  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  Deans— A.  Wilkes  Smith,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.,  1886-1887;  J.  Lewis  Howe,  M.  D., 
Ph.  D.,  1887 .  Professors  of  Operative  Den- 
tistry—A. Wilkes  Smith,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1886- 
1887;  F.  Peabody,  D.  D.  S.,  1887 .  Profes- 
sors of  Dental  Prosthesis — Charles  D.  Edwards, 
D.  D.  S.,  1886-1891;  Ed  M.  Kettig,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.,  1891-1892;  Charles  E.  Dunn,  D.  D.  S., 
1892 . 

The  American  College  of  Dental  Surgery  was 
chartered  in  1886  and  is  located  in  Chicago.  Deans 
— L  Clendenen,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.,  1886- 1892;  J.  S. 
Marshall,  M.  D.,  1892  .  Professors  of  Oper- 
ative Dentistry— Willard  E.  Hall,  D.  D.  S.,  1886- 
1887;  IraB.  Crissman,  D.  D.  S.,  1888 .  Pro- 
fessors of  Dental  Prosthesis — J.  T.  Davenport, 
D.  D.  S.,  1886-1887;  Ira  B.  Crissman,  D.  D.  S., 
1887-1888;  George  Thomas,  D.  D.  S.,  1888-1890; 
Thomas  Rix,  D.  D.  S.,  1890- 1892;  B.  J.  Cigrand, 
B.  S.,  D.  D.  S.,  1892 . 

The     Dental     Department     of     the    Southern 

♦Informed  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Howe. 


2  20  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Medical  College-  was  instituted  in  1887  and  is 
located  at  Atlanta,  Ga.  Deans — L.  D.  Carpenter, 
D.  D.  S. ;  William  Crenshaw,  D.  D.  S.  Professor 
of  Operative  Dentistry — William  Crenshaw,  D.-D.  S. 
Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis — John  S.  Thompson, 
D.  D.  S. 

The  University  Dental  Schoolt  was  established 
in  1888  and  is  located  in  Chicago.  Deans — John 
S.  Marshall',  M.  D. ;  Edgar  D.  Swain,  D.  D.  S. 
Professors  of  Operative  Dentistry — Charles  Pruyne, 
D.  D.  S. ;  G.  H.  Gushing,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of 
Dental  Prosthesis — L.  P.  Haskell;  —  Dennis, 
D.  D.  S. ;  —  Ames,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Homeopathic  Hospital  College^  Vv'as  insti- 
tuted in  1892  and  is  located  at  Cleveland,  O. 
Dean— S.  B.  Dewey.  :\I.  D..  D.  D.  S.  Professor 
of  Operative  Dentistry — J.  E.  Robinson,  D.  D.  S. 
Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — G.  H.  Wilson, 
D.  D.    S. ;  W.  S.  Jackson,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  School  of  the  University  of  ]Minne- 
sota-^  was  established  in  1881  and  is  located  in 
Minneapolis.  Dean — W'.  Xavier  Sudduth,  A.  M., 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry 
— T.  E.  \Veeks,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental 
Prosthesis— C.  M.  Bailey,  D.  M.  D. 

The   Dental   Department  of  the  University  of 

*Informed  by  Dr.  L.  D.  Carpenter, 
tinformed  b^-  Dr.  E.  D.  Swain. 
^Informed  by  Dr.  S.  B.  Dewey, 
ilnformed  bv  Dr.  W.  X.  Sudduth. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  221 

Denver-  was  instituted  in  1888  and  is  located  in 
Denver,  Col.  Deans — A.  B.  Robbins,  M.  D. ;  M. 
A.  Bartleson,  D.  D.  S. ;  P.  T.  Smith,  D.  D.  S.  ; 
Thomas  Gaddes,  L.  D.  S. ,  M.  D. ;  George  J.  Har- 
tung,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry 
— John  M.  Norman,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Dental 
Prosthesis— M.  A.  Bartleson,  D.  D.  S. ;  E.  W. 
Griswald,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Meharry  Dental  Schoolf  was  chartered  in 
1886  and  is  located  in  Nashville,  Tenn.  Dean — 
G.  W.  Hubbard,  M.  D.  Professors  of  Operative 
Dentistry— J.  P.  Bailey,  D.  D.  S. ;  J.  R.  Porter, 
A.  B.,  D.  D.  S. ;  H.  L.  Smith,  D.  D.  S. ;  S.  J.  Wat- 
kins,  D.  D.  S.  ;  J.  B.  Singleton,  D.  D.  S.  Pro- 
fessors'  of  Dental  Prosthesis — A.  P.  Johnson, 
D.  D.  S. ;  B.  N.  Du  Pre,  D.  D.  S. ;  O.  G.  Mingle- 
dorff,  A.  M.,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  Department  of  the  Universit}-  of 
Tennessee:]:  was  organized  in  1889  and  is  located  at 
Nashville,  Tenn.  Deans — Robert  Russell,  D.  D.  S. ; 
J.  T.  Crawford,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  R.  B.  Lees, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professors  of  Operative  Den- 
tistry—Robert Russell,  D.  D.  S.  ;  J.  Y.  Crawford, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.;  R.  B.  Lees,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 
Professors  of  Dental  Prosthesis — J.  Y.  Crawford, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. ;  R.  B.  Lees,  M.  D.,  D.  D. ;  J.  P. 
Gray,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 

♦Informed  bj-  Dr.  G.  J.  Hartuny. 
tinformed  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Hubbard. 
^Informed  by  Dr.  R.  B.  I/ces. 


222 


The  United  States  Dental  College*  was  char- 
tered in  1 891  and  is  located  in  Chicago.  Dean — 
J.  J.  Angear,  A.  M.,  M.  D.  Professors  of  Oper- 
ative Dentistry— J.  D.  Robertson,  D.  D.  S. ;  Dr. 
Lazur,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis 
— G.  A.  Thomas,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Dental  Department  of  the  Western  Reserve 
Universityt  was  chartered  in  1892  and  is  located 
in  Cleveland,  O.  Dean— W.  H.  Whistlar,  M.  D., 
D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry — 
Charles  R.  Butler,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of 
Dental  Prosthesis — George  H.  Wilson,  D.  D,  S. 

The  Alabama  College  of  Dental  Surgery:[:  was 
chartered  in  1892  and  is  located  in  Bridgeport, 
Ala.  Dean— J.  S.  Hill,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S.  Profes- 
sors of  Operative  Dentistry — T.  i\I.  Allen,  D.  D.  Su 
Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis — F.  L.  Adams, 
D.  D.   S. 

The  Detroit  Dental  College§  was  established  in 
1892  and  is  located  in  Detroit,  Mich.  Dean — 
Theodore  A.  McGraw,  ]\I.  D.  Professors  of  Oper- 
ative Dentistry — George  S.  Field,  D.  D.  S. ;  E.  W. 
Clawson,  D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis 
—Dr.  F.  L.  Shattuck. 

The  Dental  School  of  the  University  of  Buffalo!! 


♦Informed  b3'  Dr.  W.  H.  Prittie. 
tlnformed  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Whistlar. 
Jlnformed  by  D.  J.  S.  Hill. 
§Informed  by  Dr.  H.  O.  Walker. 
Illnformed  by  Dr.  W.  C.  Barrett. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  22  3 

was  instituted  in  1893  3.nd  is  located  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.  Dean— W.  C.  Barrett,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 
Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry — F.  E,  Howard, 
D.  D.  S.  Professor  of  Dental  Prosthesis — C.  A. 
Allen,  D.  D.  S. 

The  following  dental  colleges  failed  to  give  in- 
formation: Kansas  City  Dental  College,  Colum- 
bian University,  Dental  Department;  Alabama 
College  of  Dental  Surgery,  and  New  York  Dental 
School. 

DENTAL    EDUCATION. 

In  1800  there  were  but  one  hundred  dentists  in 
the  United  States,  ten  years  later  there  were  three 
hundred  representatives  of  the  profession,  while 
to-day  we  have  a  congress  of  twenty  thousand. 

What  is  true  of  the  increase  in  colleges  and 
professional  practitioners  is  of  necessity  true  of  the 
journals  and  literature  pertaining  to  this  great  and 
wonderful  art  and  science. 

Prior  to  the  founding  of  the  Baltimore  College 
of  Dental  Surgery  (1839)  f^'^^'  American  dental 
practitioners  had  devoted  their  attention  to  dental 
literature,  but  the  following  dentists  gave  their 
efforts  and  energies  toward  the  creation  of  a 
nucleus  from  which  since  so  much  has  developed: 
"Practical  Observation  on  the  Teeth,"  R.  Woofen- 
dale,  1783;  "A  Treatise  on  the  Human  Teeth," 
Skinner,  1801;  "A  Treatise  on  Dentistry,"  Long- 
botham,  1802;    *'A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of 


224  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

the  Teeth,"  James,  1814;  "A  Practical  Guide  to 
the  Management  of  the  Teeth,"  Parmly  (L.  S.), 
1819;  "Lectures  on  the  Natural  History  of  the 
Teeth,"  Parmly  (L.  S.),  1821;  "An  Essay  on  th« 
Disorders  of  the  Teeth,"  Parmly  (E.),  1.822;  "The 
Family  Dentist,"  Flagg  (T.  F.),  1822;  "Treatise 
on  the  Structures  and  Diseases  of  the  Teeth," 
Gidney,  1824;  "Principles  of  Dental  Surgery," 
Koecker,  1826;  "A  Physiological  Inquiry  Into  the 
Structure,  Organization  and  Nourishment  of  th-e 
Human  Teeth,"  Trenor,  1828;  "Observations  on 
Neuralgia  with  Cases,"  Trenor,  1828;  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Importance  of  Teeth,"  P'itch,  1828; 
"A  System  of  Dental  Surgery,"  Fitch,  1829;  "An 
Essay  on  Artificial  Teeth,"  Koecker,  1832;  "Re- 
marks on  the  Importance  of  Teeth,"  Chewning, 
1833;  "An  Essay  on  the  Disorders  of  the  Jaws," 
Koecker,  1834;  "The  Family  Dentist,"  Bostwick, 
1835;  "An  Inaugural  Dissertation  on  the  Physi- 
ology and  Diseases  of  the  Teeth,"  Spooner,  1835; 
"Dentalogia,"  Brown  (Solyman),  1835;  "Observa- 
tions on  the  General  Importance  of  the  Teeth," 
Plough,  1836;  "Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,"  Spooner, 
1836;  "A  Public  Treatise  Upon  the  Preservation 
of  the  Teeth,"  Overfield,  1838;  "Dental  Hygia," 
Brown  (Solyman),  1883;  "Observations  on  the 
Structure,  Physiology,  Anatomy  and  Diseases  of 
the  Teeth,"  Burdell,  1838;  "An  Essay  on  the 
Manufacture  of  Mineral,  Porcelain,  or  Incorruptible 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  22  5 

Teeth,"  Spooner,   1S38;    "The  Dental  Art,"  Harris 
(C  A.),  1839. 

DENTAL    PERIODICALS. 

"The  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science"  was 
the  first  in  this  or  any  other  country,  and  was 
issued  on  June  i,  1839.  The  following  from  a 
subsequent  volume  of  this  journal  fairly  portrays 
what  the  founders  of  the  journal  expected  to  meet 
and  overcome  and  reads:"- 

"The  circular  of  the  publishing  committee,  E. 
Parmly,  E.  Baker  and  Solyman  Brown,  sent  it 
forth  with  many  apparent  misgivings  as  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  experiment,  and  appealed  in  strong 
terms  to  the  more  intelligent  mem.bers  of  the  pro- 
fession to  come  forward  to  its  support.  ^  ^  * 
The  Journal  was  to  consist  of  forty-eight  pages, 
twenty-four  of  which  were  to  be  devoted  to  the 
republication  of  standard  works  on  dental  theory 
and  practice.  It  was  to  be  issued  monthly.  The 
need  of  such  a  publication  was  evinced  by  the 
promptness  with  which  this  effort  was  encouraged. 
In  the  fourth  number  a  list  of  subscribers,  embrac- 
ing the  most  eminent  names  in  the  profession,  was 
published,  showing  that  there  were  at  that  time 
one  hundred  and  seventy-four  subscribers  taking 
five  hundred  and  eleven  copies.  This  may  seem  a 
small  number,  but  when  it  is  recollected  that  this 

♦Denial  and  Oral  Science — Dexter,  p.  229. 


226  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

was  years  ago,  when  the  number  of  intelligent 
dental  surgeons  was  very  small,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  evidence  of  a  remarkably  general  interest  in  the 
undertaking.  During  the  first  year  of  its  publica- 
tion the  Journal  was  conducted  under  the  editorial 
management  of  E.  Parmly,  of  New  York,  and  C. 
A.  Harris,  of  Baltimore,  in  which  latter  city  it  was 
printed.  It  was  issued  with  some  irregularity  at 
the  subscription  price  of  three  dollars  per  annum. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons,  which 
at  that  time  was  organized.  The  title  was  then 
changed  to  that  of  the  'American  Journal  and 
Library  of  Dental  Science.'  It  was  now  issued  in 
quarterly  numbers,  and  the  subscription  price  was 
increased  to  five  dollars.  It  was  placed  by  the 
society  in  the  charge  of  C.  A.  Harris,  of  Baltimore, 
and  Solyman  Brown,  of  New  York.  The  editors 
were  to  be  assisted  in  their  labors  by  twenty  col- 
laborators, whose  duty  it  was  to  furnish  matter  for 
the  work  and  to  aid  its  circulation.  From  that 
period  until  August,  1850,  the  Journal  continued 
to  be  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  society, 
under  the  charge  of  several  editors  appointed 
yearly.  At  the  annual  meeting,  in  the  year,  it  was 
transferred  to  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris,  of  Baltimore,  the 
society  relinquishing  all  control  of  the  Journal, 
which  is  now  a  private  enterprise." 

The   following  is   a  list  of  the   various    dental 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  22/ 

journals  which  have  been  issued  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  since  1839: 

1839 •  American  Journal  of  Dental  Sci- 
ence, Baltimore.  Editors:  Parmly  (E.),  Baker, 
Brown,  Harris  (C.  A.),  Piggott,  Gorgas  (F.  J.  S.). 

1843.*  Dental  Visitor,  Northampton,  Mass. 
Editor,  J.  W.  Smith. 

1 843- 1 844.  The  Dental  Mirror,  Northampton, 
Mass.      Editors,  J.  P.  and  W.  R.  Holmes. 

1 844- 1 8 57.  Stockton's  Dental  Intelligencer, 
Philadelphia.      Editor,  Stockton. 

1845.^  The  Dental  Mirror  and  Brooklyn  An- 
nual Visitor,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Editor,  M.  K. 
Bridges. 

1 846- 1 8 56.  The  New  York  Dental  Recorder, 
New  York  City.      Editor,  C.  C.  Allen. 

1847 .      The   Dental  Register,   Cincinnati. 

Editors,    J.  Taft,  Taylor. 

1847-1859.  The  Dental  News  Letter,  Phila- 
delphia.     Editors,    J.    D.  White,   J.   R.    McCurdy. 

1 847- 1 848.  Dental  Intelligencer,  Philadelphia. 
Editor,  E.  Stockton. 

1849.*  The  Dental  Messenger  and  Lancaster 
Annual  Visitor,  Lancaster.  Editor's  name  not 
mentioned. 

1850 .      The  American   Journal   of  Dental 

Science,  Baltimore.      Second  series. 

♦Could  not  determine  date  of  discontinuance. 


228  THE    RISE,   FALL    AXD    REVIVAL 

1851-1852.  Dental  Times  and  Advertiser, 
Baltimore.      Editor,  A.  A.  Blandy. 

1851.^  ?^Ierritt's  Dental  ?.Iessenger,  Griffin,  Ga. 
Editor,  F.  Y.  Clark. 

1 853-1 854.  The  Semi-Annual  Dental  Ex- 
positor, Baltimore.      Editor,  Solyman  Brown. 

1 852-1 853.  The  Practical  Dentist,  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.      Editor,  F.  Fuller. 

1853."  The  Family  Dental  Journal,  Albany, 
X.  Y.      Editor,  D.  C.  Estes. 

1 85 5-1 856.  The  Forcep,  Xew  York  City. 
Editor's  name  not  m.entioned. 

1855-1856.  The  Dental  Observator,  New  Or- 
leans.     Editor,  J.  S.  Clark. 

1855.'''  The  Dental  ^Monitor  and  Quarterly 
?^Iiscellany,  Xew  York.      PMitor's  name  not  given. 

1 857-1 858.  The  American  Dental  Review, 
St.  Louis.      Editor,  A.  ]\I.  Leslie. 

1 856-1 859.  The  Dental  Reporter,  Cincinnati. 
P^ditor,  J.  T.  Toland. 

1855-1860.  The  Dental  Enterprise,  Baltimore. 
Editor,  H.  Snowden. 

1 858-1 864.  Xew  York  Dental  Journal,  X^'ew 
York.      Editors,  F.  H.  Xorton  and  G.    H.   Ferine. 

1858-1860.  The  Cincinnati  Dental  Lamp,  Cin- 
cinnati.     Editor,  J.  M.  Brown. 

1859."^  The  Family  Dentist,  Xev/  York.  Edi- 
tor, B.  F.  Smith. 

♦Could  not  determine  date  of  discontinuance. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  229 

1859 .      The  Dental  Cosmos,  Philadelphia. 

Editors:    J.  W.  White,    J.    D.  White,    J.    H.    Mc- 
Quillen,  G.  J.  Ziegler  and  Edward  C.  Kirk. 

1 860-1 861.  The  Southern  Dental  Examiner,. 
Atlanta,  Ga.  Editors,  J.  P.  Brown  and  G.  P> 
Fouke. 

1 860- 1 862.  The  Vulcanite,  New  York.  Editor,. 
B.  W.  Franklin. 

1 860- 1 86 1.  The  Dental  Instructor,  New  York. 
Editor,  E.  A.  L.  Roberts. 

1862-1867.  The  Dental  Quarterly,  Philadel- 
phia. Editors:  A.  Tees,  F.  N.  Johnson,  G.  R. 
Weden.  Continued  as  Dental  Office  and  Labor- 
atory. 

1863-1864.  The  People's  Dental  Journal,  Chi- 
cago. Editors,  W.  W.  Allport  and  T.  T.  Creigh- 
ton. 

1 863- 1 873.  The  Dental  Times,  Philadelphia. 
Editors:   G.  T.  Barker,  E.  Wildman,  J.  Tyson. 

1865-1865.  The  Dental  Circular  and  PLxam- 
iner,  Albany,  N.  Y.      Editor,  B.  Wood. 

1867 .      The  American  Journal  of   Dental 

Science,  Baltimore.      Third  series. 

1868.*  The  St.  Louis  Dental  Journal,  St. 
Louis.      Editor,  J.  Payne. 

1 868-1 872.  The  Dental  Office  and  Laboratory, 
Philadelphia.  Editors,  Johnson  &  Lund.  New 
series  in  1877. 

*Could  not  determine  date  of  discontinuance. 


2  30  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

1 869- 1 869.  The  Vicksburg  New  Era,  Vicks- 
burg,  Miss.      Editor,  \V.  S.  Young. 

1869.'^  The  Missouri  Dental  Journal,  St.  Louis. 
Editors:  H.  Judd,  H.  S.  Case,  C.  W.  Spalding, 
R.  S.  Pearson.  Resuscitated  as  the  Archives 
of  Dentistry. 

1 869-1 870.  Houghton's  Dental  Annual, 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.      Editor,   C.  L.  Houghton. 

1869 .      The   Dental    Advertiser,    Buffalo, 

N.  Y.      Editors,  T.  G.  Lewis,  W.  C.  Barrett. 

1872-1872.  The  Dental  Mirror,  St.  Louis. 
Edited  by  committee  from  St.  Louis  Dental  Society. 

iS6S-iS/y.  The  Canadian  Journal  of  Dental 
Science,  Montreal.      Editor,  W.  G.  Beers. 

1 874-1 877.  The  Pennsylvania  Journal  of  Den- 
tal Science,  Lancaster,  Penn.    Editor,  S.  Welchens. 

1 874- 1 88 1 .  Johnston's  Dental  Miscellany,  New 
York.      Editors,   Johnston  Bros. 

1877-1878.  The  St.  .Louis  Dental  Quarterly, 
St.  Louis.  Editors,  C.  W.  Spalding  and  H.  S. 
Case. 

1 877 .  Dental  Office  and  Labratory,  Phila- 
delphia.     Editors,   Johnson  and  Lund. 

1 878- 1 878.  The  Dental  News,  Knightstown, 
Ind.      Editor,  T.  P.  Wagoner. 

1 878-1 878.  The  Dental  and  Oral  Science 
Magazine,  New  York.      Editor,  R.  S.  Williams. 

♦Could  not  determine  date  of  discontinuance. 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  23 1 

1878   .      Items    of    Interest,    Philadelphia. 

Editor,  T.  B.  Welch. 

1879    .      The    Dental    Summary,    Macon, 

Ga.      Editor,  J.  P.  and  W.  R.  Holmes. 

1880-1891.  The  Independent  Practitioner, 
New  York.  Editors:  W.  C.  Barrett,  H.  T.  Byrd, 
B.  M.  Wilkerson,  G.  H.  Rohe,  G.  W.  Field,  W.  C. 
Barrett.  Continued  as  the  International  Dental 
Journal. 

1880-1884.  The  Dental  Jairus,  Sacramento, 
Cal.      Editor,  W.  O.  Thailkill. 

1881-1884.  The  Pacific  Dental  Journal,  Sac- 
ramento, Cal.      Editor,  W.  O.  Thrailkill. 

1880 .      The  Dental  Headlight,  Nashville, 

Tenn.      Editor's  name  not  mentioned. 

1881-1885.  The  Herald  of  Dentistry,  Brook- 
lyn.     Editor,  T.  O.  Oliver. 

1 88 1 .      Ohio    State    Journal    of    Dental 

Science,  Toledo,  O.  Editors,  G.  Watt  and  L.  P. 
Bethel. 

1882  .  The  Southern  Dental  Journal,  At- 
lanta, Ga.      Editors,  B.  H.  Catching  and  Holliday. 

1882-1883.  The  Dentist's  Beacon  Light,  La 
Crosse,  Wis.      Editor,  Edgar  Palmer. 

1 882-1 884.  New  England  Journal  of  Dentistry, 
Springfield,  IVfass.      Editor,  Charles  Mayr. 

1882 .      The    Dental    Record,    Baltimore. 

Editor's  name  not  given.      Since  discontinued. 


2  32  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

jS82  .  Health  and  Home,  Toledo.  Edi- 
tor, J.  Munson. 

18S3  .      The  Dental  Practitioner,  Philadel- 

•delphia.      Editors,  C.  E.  Pike   and   L.   A.  Faught. 

1883 .    The  Texas  Dental  Journal,  Dallas, 

Texas.      Editor,  Newman  and  Storey. 

1883-1890.  The  Practical  Dentist,  Elgin,  111. 
Editors,  Truesdell  and  Underwood. 

1883."^  Caulk's  Dental  Annual,  Camden,  Del. 
Editor,  Caulk. 

1884-1886.  The  Dental  Student,  Warren, 
Ind.      Editor.  C.  A.  Rigdon. 

1884-1885.  The  Dental  Review,  Charlotte, 
JMich.      Editor,  \V.  G.  Ashton. 

1 884- 1 89 1.  The  Archives  of  Dentistry,  St. 
Louis.  Editors:  C.  \V.  Spalding,  T.  P'uller  and 
Eames. 

1885-1887.  The  Dental  p:clectic,  Knoxville, 
Tenn.      Editor,  S.  S.  Willard. 

1 88 5- 1 886.  Facts,  Chatanooga,  Tenn.  Edi- 
tor, E.  M.  Martin. 

1885 .      Cincinnati     Medical    and    Dental 

Journal,  Cincinnati.      Editor,  F.  W.  Sage. 

1888-1890.  The  Practical  Dentist,  Toledo,  O. 
Editors:  C.  W.  :Munson,  W.  E.  Blakeney,  F.  O. 
Brake. 

1889 .      The  Dominion  Dental  Journal. 

1 891  ,      Pacific  Dental  Journal. 

"^Could  not  determine  date  of  discontinuance- 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  233 

1887    .      Dental     Office     and     Labratory, 

Philadelphia.      Editor,  Chupein. 

1886  .  Dental  Review,  Chicago.  Edi- 
tors:  A.  W.  Harlan,  C.  N.  Johnson,  L.  Ottofy. 

1889 .  International  Dental  Journal,  Phil- 
adelphia. Editors:  W.  X.  Sudduth,  James  Tru- 
man, Joseph  Head,  G.  W.  Warren. 

1892 .      The   Dental  Journal,  Ann  Arbor, 

Mich.      Editor,  C.  A.  Hawley. 

1889-1892.  American  Journal  of  Oral  and 
Dental  Science,  Chicago.  Editors:  I.  Clendenen, 
G.  A.  Thomas,  G.  North,  G.  A.  Stevenson,  O.  P. 
Bennett. 

1 890- 1 89 1.  The  Dental  Mirror,  New  York. 
Editor,    R.  Ottolengui. 

1 891 .      Dental    and    Surgical  Microcosm, 

Chicago  and  Pittsburg.      P^ditor,  S.  J.  Hayes. 

1 892- 1 893.  The  Dental  World,  Chicago. 
Editors,  E.  L.  Clifford  and  B.  J.  Cigrand. 

1 892-1892.  The  Dentist  Himself,  New  York. 
Editor,  Kimble. 

1892  .  The  Chicago  Medico-Dental  Bul- 
letin, Chicago.  Editors:  W.  H.  Brittle,  J.  J.  M. 
Angear,  G.  North,  G.  Frank  Lydston. 

The  Dental  Tribune,  Chicago.  Editor,  Louis 
Ottofy.  " 

While  many  of  these  had  an   ephemeral  exist- 

*The  author  is  indebted  to  the  following  g-entlemen  for  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  list  of  American  dental  journals:  Drs.  J.  Taft,  H.  J. 
McKellops,  Allen  Lund,  James  Truman  and  E.  Kirk. 


234  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

ence,  others  have  lived  well  and  do  worthy  service 
in  their  strict  devotion  to  the  profession. 

These  various  journals  did  eminent  service,  in 
my  research,  and  the  records  of  dentistry  contained 
in  these  monthly  educators  are  the  safe  archives  of 
the  profession,  where  we  may  trace  the  present 
dental  progress  back  to  those  traditional  ages, 
when,  too,  our  favorite  vocation  prospered  and 
attained  that  semi-state  of  perfection. 

The  following  from  the  pen  of  the  eminent  Dr. 
G.  V.  Black  is  appended  to  the  subject  of  dental 
periodicals,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  cheer  the 
editors  and  as  well  the  readers  of  the  various  dental 
journals: 

"W'e  should  not  condemn  journals  because 
some  of  the  articles  are  of  little  value.  Much  of 
the  thought  presented  in  journals  is  simply  placed 
on  trial,  and  that  which  my  judgment  or  the  indi- 
vidual judgment  of  the  editor  might  condemn  may 
prove  to  be  valuable.  Many  of  the  better  things 
in  literature  have  been  condemned  at  first  reading 
by  learned  critics,  and  have  afterward  been  recog- 
nized by  the  world  as  models  of  thought  and 
expression.  Neither  should  we  drop  the  reading 
of  a  journal  because  a  number  or  two  fails  to 
interest  us.  The  next  number  may  contain  a 
single  article  that  will  be  worth  a  dozen  years'  sub- 
scription, besides  compensation  for  much  uninter- 
esting   readincr.      Anvone    who    fails    to   read    the 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  235 

journals  will  be  behind,  not  only  in  his  thoughts, 
but  also  in  his  practice." 

ARTISTS   AND    SCIENTISTS. 

The  days  of  unwieldy  instruments  and  rude 
operators  are  now  in  oblivion,  and  in  their  stead 
we  find  instruments  and  appliances  complete  in 
every  respect,  and  practitioners  who  are  as  mild  a 
class  of  men  as  ever  played  the  lute  or  sung  the 
songs  of  love. 

It  was  in  the  spirit  of  advancement  and  a  love 
for  the  beautiful  that  the  dental  infant  was  taken 
from  the  barber  shop  and  raised  to  the  high  and 
ennobling  position  it  now  occupies.  And  who  has 
wrought  this  most  desirable  change.'*  None  else 
than  the  ingenious  and  persevering  modern  dentist. 
The  dental  office  is  no  longer  a  prison  of  torture, 
but  on  the  other  hand  is  a  welcome  resort  for  suf- 
fering humanity.  To  accomplish  this  good  end 
has  cost  the  burning  of  much  midnight  oil,  and 
many  of  the  energetic  men  who  have  labored 
vigorously  in  this  most  beneficent  cause  are  now 
slumbering  in  the  cities  of  the  dead. 

It  is  said  that  "a  poet  is  born,  not  made,"  and 
this  old  saw  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  applicable  to  the 
dentist.  In  order  to  advance  and  be  successful  in 
the  dental  profession  the  practitioner  must  have 
certain  definite  qualifications  and  inclinations.  And 
these  essentials  must  be  his  or  her  natural  bent  of 
character.    Among  the  requisites  of  a  model  dentist 


236  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

the  most  important  are:  That  peculiar  quality 
which  makes  the  successful  surgeon,  coupled  with 
mechanical  ingenuity,  dexterity,  studiousness,  and 
last,  but  far  from  least,  the  patience  of  Job.  Per- 
haps the  reason  why  there  are  so  many  lamentable 
failures  among  the  practitioners  of  dentistry  at  the 
present  time  is  because  so  many  enter  the  profes- 
sion with  the  sole  and  whole  purpose  of  gathering 
the  supposed  hoards  of  money  which  are  believed 
to  be  accessible  to  its  votaries.  But  how  soon  are 
the  plans  and  anticipations  of  these  empirics  frus- 
trated when  they  find  they  are  not  adapted  to  their 
chosen  work;  unfitted  for  the  science,  they  drop 
by  the  way.  They  are  allowed  admission  into  the 
labyrinthal  highway,  but  soon  are  lost  and  bewil- 
dered among  the  "ologies"  and  "isms"  of  the  pro- 
fession. Dentistry  is  too  great  a  science  for  the 
gross  and  unskilled  to  appreciate  the  aesthetic 
beauties  of  its  art.  The  modern  dentist  must  be 
in  the  full  sense  of  the  words  a  "facial  sculptor,'* 
for  to  his  tender  care  and  consideration  is  left  the 
moulding  of  many  a  scowl  or  smile.  He  must 
appreciate  the  lines  of  beauty  in  expression  and 
discern  at  a  glance  the  changes  necessary  in  the 
different  physiognomy  to  make  them  charming  and 
inviting,  rather  than  repellent  and  false. 

In  dental  prosthesis  and  dental  surgery  the 
sculptoral  genius  is  certainly  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity   to    exercise    his    art,    since  it    is    in    these 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  237 

departments  of  dentistry  that  the  study  of  the  face 
is  most  essential.  The  face  is  divine  territory 
which  solicits  the  prosthetic  dentist's  sincerest  con- 
sideration. The  face  to  him  is  the  window  to  the 
brain,  the  avenue  to  mind  and  character.  The 
face  is  the  servant  of  the  emotions;  it  mirrors  the 
feelings,  and  gives  expression  to  impulses.  It  is 
the  visible  record,  the  map  of  the  heart  proclaim- 
ing the  character  of  the  individual  to  all  who  can 
read.  The  symbols  of  character,  which  are  unmis- 
takably in  the  face,  are  not  occult  and  secret,  but 
are  open  and  plain,  that  even  a  child  may  read 
and  know  distinctly  the  heart  of  its  owner.  Now, 
since  the  distinctive  feature  of  dental  prosthesis  is 
"restoration, "you  can  readily  comprehend  why  the 
dentist  who  is  continually  sought  to  restore  faces, 
must  of  necessity  be  thoroughly  prepared  to  restore 
the  lost  features,  and  rebuild  the  symbols  of  indi- 
viduality and  character.  He  must  have  a  clear 
conception  of  the  outlines  of  that  which  is  to  be 
established,  and  constantly  have  the  imaginary 
ideal  vividly  before  him.  In  all  grand  works  of 
man  the  ideal  was  ever  the  basis  of  the  real.  In 
our  own  modern  city  take  for  example  the  mag- 
nificent Auditorium,  with  all  its  halls,  porticoes, 
entrances,  pillars,  stairways,  arches,  balconies  and 
tower,  all  was  designed  by  the  architect  in  all  its 
grand  proportions  and  arrangements  before  the 
foundation    stone    was    laid.       The    sculptor    who 


238  THE    RISE,  FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

chiseled  from  the  huge  misshapen  block  the  almost 
living  and  breathing  figure  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in 
a  park  by  his  name  saw  in  the  rough  stone  the 
ideal  statue. 

Dr.  Allport  once  said:  *'He  who  has  but  moder- 
ate ideas  of  symmetry,  harmony  of  expression  and 
color,  is  constantly  pained  by  lack  of  that  artistic 
selection  and  arrangement  of  artificial  teeth  which 
serve  to  restore  to  the  face  the  shape  and  expres- 
sion left  upon  it  by  the  Creator,  the  absence  of 
which  in  artificial  dentures  stamps  him  who  should 
be  an  artist  an  artisan — a  mere  mechanic — a  libeler 
of  the  soul — a  deformer  of  the  humane  face  divine." 
We  can  only  know  how  thoroughly  scientific, 
artistic  and  technical  the  restoration  of  the  face  is 
when  we  hearken  to  that  great  lecturer  Fuseli,  who 
says:  "If  the  nose  of  Apollo  be  shortened  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  the  'god  of  physical  beauty' 
would  be  destroyed."  If  this  be  true,  which  it 
certainly  is,  it  should  lead  us  to  be  very  cautious 
as  to  the  duty  of  our  calling,  and  ever  remember 
that  the  perfect  restoration  of  the  countenance 
with  the  original  power  of  expression  by  art,  as  to 
•defy  detection,  is  one  of  the  crowning  glories  of 
dental  prosthesis. 

This  branch  of  dental  science  is  as  a  general 
thing  underestimated,  inasmuch  as  those  who 
have  made  a  specialty  of  it  have  failed  to  bring  to 
light  the  many  grand  principles  that  underlie  this 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  239 

most  deserving  specialty.  I  can  do  no  fairer 
justice  to  the  subject  of  prerequisite  qualifications 
of  the  student  of  Dental  Prosthesis  than  by  quot- 
ing the  able  scholar,  Dr.  W.  W.  Allport,  who  said: 
"It  is  in  Dental  Prosthesis  the  dentist  has  the 
greater  field  for  the  use  of  art.  It  is  for  him  to  so 
construct  substitutes  for  the  natural  teeth  that  they 
will  harmonize  with  the  works  of  the  Creator  that 
surrounded  them,  and  be  so  true  to  nature  in  size,, 
shape,  color  and  position  that  they  will  not  pro- 
duce discord  in  the  facial  expression.  There  is  arb 
individuality  in  everything  that  God  has  made. 
There  are  no  two  blades  of  grass,  no  two  flowers,, 
two  faces,  two  eyes,  nor  are  there  any  two  sets  of 
teeth  that  are  alike.  They  may  be  similar  in  type,, 
but  not  in  detail,  and  it  is  this  detail  that  gives 
the  specific  individuality  by  which  we  are  enabled 
to  tell  one  from  the  other.  Between  these  details; 
there  is  a  harmony  that  makes  any  one  part  a  fit 
companion  of  its  surroundings.  Any  important 
change  in  any  of  these  details  would,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  change  made,  alter  the  individuality- 
of  the  original.  As  there  are  no  two  things, 
exactly  alike  in  nature,  there  can  be  no  exact  rules. 
by  which  anything  in  nature  can  be  imitated.. 
There  are,  however,  rules  which  may  be  aids  in. 
producing  general  outlines,  but  it  is  the  soul  and 
feeling  of  the  artist  that  works  out  the  details 
which  gives  life   to   the   substitute.      A  mechanic. 


240  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

pure  and  simple,  may  construct  a  set  of  teeth  and 
make  them  serviceable  to  the  wearer,  inasmuch  as 
they  will  fit  and  be  strong-  and  useful  in  mastica- 
tion, but  only  he  who  has  the  artistic  feeling  and 
skill  will  be  able  to  select  his  materials  and  so 
adapt  them  in  the  mouth  that  they  will  harmonize 
with  the  complexion  and  anatomy  of  the  face  and 
be  true  to  nature.  From  infancy  to  old  age  there 
is  harmony  in  contour,  as  well  as  in  color,  and 
there  is  change  and  adaptation  of  one  to  the  other 
at  every  stage  of  life.  The  hair  that  would  be 
becoming  to  a  girl  of  sixteen,  would  not  be  suited 
to  the  same  person  at  sixty.  Hence  nature  changes 
the  color  of  the  hair  to  be  in  keeping  with  the  face 
as  age  advances.  The  same  is  true  of  the  teeth; 
all  change  and  grow  old  together,  and  there  is 
beauty  in  age  only  as  there  is  harmony.  To 
attempt,  therefore,  to  make  the  face  look  younger 
or  more  attractive  by  making  any  one  part  of  it 
appear  younger  than  is  natural  is  a  great  mistake, 
for  the  other  parts  suffer  by  an  inharmonious  con- 
trast which  always  unpleasantly  attracts  attention. 
"In  applying  this  idea  to  the  selection  and 
adaptation  of  artificial  teeth,  it  will  at  once  be 
seen  how  very  important  it  is  that  he  who  gives 
his  attention  to  this  branch  of  industry  should  not 
only  be  a  good  mechanic,  but  should  possess  that 
art  feeling  that  will  enable  him  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  physical  harmony.      If  he  does  not 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  24 1 

possess  this  quality,  he  will  be  a  mechanical  dentist 
only.  His  work  may  be  useful  for  mastication, 
but  the  face  will  be  apt  to  look  'toothy.'  To 
produce  this  appearance  the  teeth  need  not  of 
necessity  be  too  large  for  the  face.  In  fact,  arti- 
ficial teeth  are  usually  smaller  than  were  the  nat- 
ural, and  yet  they  give  the  appearance  of  which  I 
have  spoken,  as  it  is  usually  the  inharmonious 
color,  rather  than  the  size  of  the  teeth  that  is  at 
fault.  The  first  as  well  as  the  most  lasting  impres- 
sion made  on  the  beholder  of  the  individual  will 
be  the  teeth,  whereas  they  should  be  so  thoroughly 
in  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  face  that  they  will 
attract  no  more  attention  than  any  other  feature. 
''One  of  the  prerequisites  to  the  study  and  prac- 
tice of  this  specialty  is  a  talent  for  and  a  knowledge 
of  art.  The  proportion  of  good  artists  who  could 
have  made  good  mechanics  is  very  large,  while  the 
proportion  of  good  mechanics  who  could  have 
made  good  artists  is  very  small.  A  person  may 
have  great  mechanical  ability,  but  little  or  no 
artistic  sense.  There  are  few  dentists  who  have 
any  idea  of  proportion  or  feeling  for  color.  This 
is  why  we  see  so  many  mouths  filled  with  abom- 
inably unnatural  looking  artificial  teeth,  and  this 
condition  of  things  will  never  be  greatly  improved 
till  more  attention  is  given  to  art  in  this  depart- 
ment of  practice.  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  develop  this  talent   in   every  dental  student,  for 


242  THE   RISE,  FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

probably  not  more  than  one  in  twenty-five,  or  per- 
haps fifty,  could  respond  to  the  demand  should 
they  be  encouraged  to  follow  dental  prosthesis  as 
a  calling. 

* 'Artistic  ability,  therefore,  should  be  among  the 
first  requisites  to  the  study  and  in  the  practice  of 
dental  prosthesis.  It  would  be  far  better  for  those 
who  engage  in  its  practice  to-have  acquired  a  theo- 
retical, as  well  as  a  practical,  knowledge  of  the 
leading  ideas  of  proper  proportions,  modeling, 
drawing  and  harmony  of  colors,  rather  than  to 
have  studied  so  much  of  medicine  as  is  usually 
taught  in  dental  colleges." 

On  this  same  subject  Dr.  Joseph  Richardson, 
one  of  the  beacon-lights  of  dental  prosthesis,  says: 

* 'Among  the  unnumbered  millions  of  human 
beings  who  have  peopled  the  earth  since  the  dawn 
of  time,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  no  two  have  been 
created  with  faces  exactly  alike.  There  is  the 
same  aggregate  of  features  and  a  pervading  general 
resemblance  of  one  person  to  another,  but  there 
will  be  found  as  infinite  a  multiplication  of  distinct 
shades  of  facial  expression  as  there  are  human 
faces,  and  each  separate  shade  of  expression  char- 
acteristic of  each  one,  and  distinguishing  him  or 
her  from  all  others,  constitutes  facial  individuality. 
Each  separate  feature — as  the  eye,  the  nose,  the 
mouth,  the  teeth,  facial  contour,  complexion,  tem- 
perament, etc. — contributes   to   this   individuality, 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  245 

and  no  one  special  feature  more,  perhaps,  than  the 
teeth.  There  are  few  more  repulsive  deformities^ 
than  those  inflicted  by  the  loss  of  these  organs,, 
and  none  more  fatal  to  the  habitual  and  character- 
istic expression  of  the  individual.  It  is  the  special 
mission,  as  it  is  the  first  and  highest  duty,  of  the 
dentist  to  preserve  this  individuality  intact,  and  am 
equally  imperative  duty  to  restore  it  as  perfectly 
as  possible  when  impaired.  To  fuUfil  in  the  most 
perfect  manner  possible  this  most  difficult  of  all  the 
requirements  of  prosthetic  practice  implies  an  art 
culture  that  is  competent  to  interpret  the  distinct 
play  of  features  associated  with  individual  physi- 
ognomies, to  differentiate  individual  temperaments^ 
and  make  available  the  sculptor's  and  painter's  per- 
ceptions of  the  subtile  harmonies  of  form  and 
color.  To  the  failure  or  inability  to  properly  com- 
prehend the  practical  import  or  significance  of 
individual  characteristics,  so  far  as  the  fixed  expres- 
sion in  the  teeth  and  the  consequent  failure  to  con- 
form our  methods  of  replacement  to  the  imperative 
requirements  of  art,  may  be  fairly  ascribed  the 
deserved  reproach  into  which  prosthetic  practice- 
has  fallen,  and  not,  as  is  generally  charged,  to  the 
employment  of  any  particular  material  or  methods 
concerned  in  the  mechanical  execution  of  the  work."^ 
The  grandest  thesis  on  the  "art  in  dentistry"  is. 
the  following  most  able  article  by  Dr.  Kingsley:^ 

♦American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  I.,  3d  series,  p.  72. 


244  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

''That  'Dentistry  is  a  Science  and  an  Art'  is  A 
statement  that  at  this  day  seems  hardly  neces- 
sary to  reiterate. 

"The  phrase  has  a  royal  sound,  and  its  frequent 
repetition  shows  that  it  is  a  favorite  expression; 
and  yet  among  the  multitudes  who  earn  their  livli- 
hood  by  practicing  dentistry,  how  few  know  the 
full  meaning  of  the  words,  and  how  little  there  is 
in  their  practice  to  justify  the  assertion. 

"To  judge  by  its  fruits,  how  much  more  there 
is  of  empiricism  than  of  science,  and  how  much 
more  of  rude  and  bungling  mechanism  than  of  art. 
Nevertheless,  dentistry  is  a  science  and  an  art,  and 
the  researches  of  the  past  four  years  alone,  to- 
gether with  the  contributions  to  its  literature,  give 
a  legitimate  claim  to  the  first  part  of  the  proposi- 
tion. Months  and  years  have  been  spent  in  the. 
prosecution  of  it  as  a  science  and  volumes  record 
its  results,  but  as  an  art,  capable  of  taking  rank 
as  one  of  the  fine  arts,  dentistry  has  rarely, 
if  ever,  found  in  our  journals  an  advocate — has 
rarely  found  else  than  a  flippant  consignment  to 
the  workshop,  where  the  very  idea  of  art  compre- 
hends only  ordinary  mechanics. 

"As  a  consequence  artistic  dentistry  has  never 
risen,  except  in  rare  individual  cases,  to  anything 
above  mechanical  dentistry.  The  very  term  by 
which  the  department  is  known  is  often  used  as 
one  of    reproach,    and    the    productions   of    these 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  245 

dental  mechanics  are  a  standing  disgrace.  In 
every  assemblage,  public  or  private,  on  the  street, 
in  the  drawing-room,  or  wherever  we  may  turn,  we 
see  displayed  their  hideous  deformities.  It  be- 
comes a  serious  question,  whether  the  art  of  den- 
tistry, aside  from  operations  upon  the  natural 
teeth,  has,  with  all  the  inventions  and  'improve- 
ments' of  the  last  decade,  advanced  one  iota. 

"The  operative  department  has  assumed  to  be 
the  department,  par  excellence  and  per  se,  and  we 
see  the  results  in  the  education  of  the  new  profes- 
sional generation,  who  ignore  as  unworthy  their 
exalted  talents  any  knowledge  of  mechanical  den- 
tistry, not  realizing  that  a  mastery  of  all  its  ele- 
ments will  do  more  to  educate  and  qualify  them 
for  perfection,  even  in  the  one  department,  than 
any  other  course  that  could  be  pursued.  We  be- 
lieve that  it  can  be  demonstrated  beyond  a  perad- 
venture  that  the  ignored  and  despised  branches  of 
dental  science  can  lay  a  well-grounded  claim  to  be 
considered  as  a  fine  art,  capable  of  the  highest 
idealization,  ranking  side  by  side  with  poetry, 
music,  painting  and  sculpture,  capable  of  appeal- 
ing, though  in  a  more  limited  manner,  to  the  same 
sentiments  and  emotions,  and  requiring  for  their 
expression  the  identical  talent  and  same  imagina- 
tion which  characterize  the  votaries  of  her  prede- 
cessors. 

"With  the  ancient  Greeks  all  works  which  ex- 


246  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

hibited  skill  were  called  works  of  art,  and  to  the 
present  day  the  term  art,  in  its  broad  signification, 
is  applied  to  every  skillful,  physical,  or  intellectual 
performance,  from  the  making  of  a  shoe  to  the 
modeling  of  a  statue,  from  the  pantomime  of  the 
stage  to  the  oratory  of  the  forum.  But  as  the 
arts  have  multiplied,  terms  of  distinction  have  be- 
come necessary,  as  fine  arts  and  mechanical  arts 
with  all  their  subdivisions. 

*'The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  fine 
arts  is  their  ideality.  In  this  the  line  of  demarka- 
tion  between  them  and  the  mechanical  and  all 
other  arts  is  unmistakably  distinct. 

"It  is  for  this  feature  we  look  in  any  work  that 
claims  this  high  rank,  and  by  this  standard  we 
judge  of  its  pretension.  The  mechanical  arts  are 
distinguished  for  their  physical  utility.  They  may 
demand  consummate  skill  for  their  execution; 
they  may  require  for  their  development  rare  inven- 
tive faculties,  and  their  combinations  of  mechanical 
principles  may  be  truly  wonderful,  but  their  indi- 
vidual works  require  but  little  effort  of  the  brain 
in  their  reproduction;  education  in  skillful  manual 
labor  without  the  capacity  to  originate  a  single  new 
idea  is  all  that  is  required.  The  laws  which  gov- 
ern their  reproduction  are  those  of  mathematics, 
and  to  be  able  to  copy  a  given  form  with  exactness 
is  the  sum  of  the  talent  required. 

"They  maybe  directly  of  more  practical  value 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  247 

to  mankind,  but  they  can  make  no  appeal  to  the 
iiner  emotions  of  our  being.  In  all  that  excites 
the  imagination,  that  calls  into  action  the  affec- 
tions, or  leads  the  mind  away  from  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  material  and  sensual,  they  are  dumb. 

"In  like  manner  the  feats  of  the  acrobat  and 
jyggler  excite  our  wonder  and  admiration,  but  like 
the  true  mechanical  arts,  have  not  an  element  of 
ideality  in  them. 

"The  ideal  or  fine  arts,  therefore,  may  include 
poetry,  music,  painting  and  sculpture.  These 
require  for  their  development  the  possession  and 
•exercise  of  the  same  mental  faculties,  are  governed 
by  the  same  general  rules,  and  have  one  common, 
'ultimate  object. 

"Poetry,  of  all  the  arts,  stands  deservedly  at 
the  head,  because  the  most  subtle  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  potent  in  its  influence.  It  is  the 
least  material  of  all,  the  farthest  removed  from 
sensible  objects;  it  has  the  greatest  scope,  admit- 
ting the  treatment  of  all  subjects,  and  its  power 
'Over  the  imagination  is  the  most  complete.  In 
regard  to  the  objects  of  the  visible  world,  one  can 
not  conceive  a  greater  distance  between  what  it 
-depicts  and  the  manner  of  depicting.  By  the  com- 
binations of  words  used  alone,  used  as  language, 
■poetry  gives  full  expression  to  every  idea,  from  the 
most  powerful  to  the  most  delicate,  and  presents 
:scenes  so  vividly  as  well  as  so  variedly  to  the  mind 


248  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 

of  the  reader  that  the  impressions  are  both  pleas- 
ing and  permanent. 

"Music  takes  precedence  over  painting  and 
sculpture  in  the  order  of  the  fine  arts,  its  claim  to 
superiority  being  based  upon  inherent  qualities  of 
humane  nature,  by  whose  control  all  that  appeals 
to  our  emotions  is  more  regarded  than  what  appeals 
to  our  understanding.  Objects  of  sight,  while 
they  please  the  eye  by  their  color,  form  an  arrange- 
ment, affect  mainly  the  mind,  and  only  indirectly 
approach  the  heart. 

'•But  music  speaks  directly  to  the  soul.  Its 
notes  are  the  reproduction  and  the  refinement  of 
natural  tones  of  pleasure,  anger,  fear,  distress, 
etc.  These  tones  music  cultivates,  and  by  pro- 
longing and  combining  them  expresses  feelings 
and  awakens  every  variety  of  emotion  into  sympa- 
thetic activity.  Thus  the  tender  pipings  of  the 
flute  call  forth  the  love  of  enjoyment;  the  clear 
bugle  notes  find  responsive  echoes  in  the  hearts  of 
mountaineers  and  huntsmen;  the  orchestral  over- 
tures send  thrills  and  throes  through  fancy-loving 
souls,  and  the  choruses  of  Mendlesohn  and  Mozart 
fill  man's  spirit  with  ecstasy  of  joy  or  wonder,  or 
with  solemn  awe. 

"More  than  any  other  art  is  music  universal. 
A  language  without  words,  music  addresses  the 
feelings  by  tone,  everywhere  understood  and  un- 
mistakable; and  it  leads  forth  the  emotions  to  an 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  249 

enjoyment  which  words  can   not  give  nor  can  even 
express. 

"Painting,  in  the  order  of  the  ideal  arts,  holds 
the  third  rank.  It  is  more  limited  in  its  scope 
than  either  of  its  predecessors,  and  expresses  its 
sentiments  or  tells  its  story  by  the  color  and  lineal 
appearance  of  bodies.  But  while  it  can  not  under- 
take the  relation  of  a  succession  of  events  in  one 
representation,  it  has  the  advantage  over  poetry, 
in  that  its  language  is  universal,  easily  recognized, 
and  needs  no  interpreter  or  translator  of  its  mean- 
ing. 

"  'A  true  picture  its  own  story,'  and  in  no  way 
does  a  common  mind  receive  more  vivid  and  last- 
ing impressions  of  portrayed  events  than  by  the 
production  of  this  art. 

*'Many  pictures  there  are  whose  sentiment  is 
sacrificed  to  that  which  merely  pleases  the  eye, 
the  gratification  of  the  senses  by  the  harmony  of 
forms  and  color  being  the  highest  aim  of  the  artist. 
It  is  this  degeneracy  into  mere  physical  represen- 
tation and  the  limited  nature  of  its  power  that 
places  it  as  an  ideal  art  in  the  rank  that  it 
occupies. 

"The  art  of  sculpture,  while  requiring  for  its 
execution  the  very  highest  order  of  mental  fac- 
ulties, is  generally  placed  in  the  scale  of  ideal  arts, 
below  that  of  painting,  because,  represented  solely 
by  form   and  without   the   aid  of  color,  it   is   more 


2  50  THE    RISE.  FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

limited  in  its  subjects  and  more  material  in  its 
^exhibition. 

"In  the  selection  of  the  human  figure,  the  most 
perfect  of  all  forms,  it  finds  its  grandest  achieve- 
ments in  depicting  all  gradations  of  intelligence, 
affection,  sentiment,  action,  or  passion,  sublime, 
iheroic,  or  tender,  and  in  all  orders  of  beings,  from 
the  exhalted  supernatural  to  the  lower  gradations 
bordering  on  the  brutes.  ^  Although  the  most 
limited  in  its  scope,  it  is  not  so  liable  to  degen- 
•eracy  as  its  sister  art  of  painting.  To  be  success- 
ful its  delineations  must  be  above  that  of  simply- 
copying  nature,  and  its  power  over  the  beholder  is 
•often  greater  than  any  other  art  could  give  to  the 
same  subject. 

''It  is  the  most  enduring  of  all  arts,  the  material 
ohosen  for  its  medium  being  the  most  independent 
of  all  the  mutations  of  time.  Of  the  peoples  of 
the  by-gone  ages,  the  only  records  left  to  us  that 
give  even  a  passing  glimpse  of  their  existence  are 
their  sculptured  monuments. 

**Like  painting  and  music,  its  language  is  uni- 
versal, and  like  painting,  when  it  ceases  to  appeal 
to  the  imagination  and  seeks  only  to  please  the 
:senses  by  the  beauty  of  form,  it  degrades  its  char- 
acter and  fails  of  its  true  mission. 

"  'Nothing  brings  people  of  other  nations  so 
vividly  before  us  as  their  works  of  art.  They  tell 
US  of  their  religion,  of  their  social  dwellings  and 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  2$  I 

customs,  of  their  advance  in  civilization  and 
religious  culture.  To  the  study  of  ancient  history 
a  knowledge  of  the  arts  as  practiced  by  different 
nations  is  indispensible.  Language  is  more  or  less 
subject  to  change  and  decay,  and  the  significance 
of  many  expressions  is  lost  to  those  who  do  not 
use  it  as  a  vernacular  tongue.  Many  nations 
have  existed  with  no  written  language,  but  the 
Almighty  in  blotting  them  out  from  the  face  of  the 
earth  has  permitted  their  works  of  art  to  live,  from 
which  something  may  be  learned  of  their  rise,  pro- 
gress and  character. 

''Architecture  is  very  commonly  regarded  as 
one  of  the  fine  arts,  and  ranked  next  to  sculpture 
and  painting.  Modern  architecture  is  addressed 
to  the  eye  and  the  intellect  alone,  and  not  to  the 
imagination,  and  the  ideal  character  necessary  to 
distinguish  a  fine  from  a  mechanical  art  is  wholly 
wanting.  Wherever  this  element  does  exist  in 
buildings  of  the  present  day  it  has  borrowed  it 
from  sculpture.  But  architecture  among  the 
ancients  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  symbolic  lan- 
guages. The  pattern  shown  to  Moses  on  the 
mount  by  God,  as  the  model  for  the  building  of 
the  tabernacle,  embodied  the  very  highest  order  of 
ideal  art. 

"Every  post,  every  board  and  every  bar,  every 
ring  and  every  curtain,  were  typical  of  man's 
redemption  from  sin,  and  spoke  a  language  unmis- 


2-5-  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

ttakable  and  clearly  comprehended  by  the  Jews; 
and  so  with  every  monument  of  the  ancient  heathen 
connected  with  their  religion,  every  temple,  every 
tdol,  and  every  altar  appealed  to  the  imagination 
and  spoke  an  ideal  language. 

"Architecture  was  then  emphatically  a  'fine 
■art,'  but  at  the  present  day  it  is  but  an  imitation 
of  the  dead  past.  The  powers  that  called  it  into 
^existence  are  gone,  and  the  emotions  to  which  it 
gave  birth  have  died  out.  We  imitate  its  corporeal 
iform,  but  the  spirit  that  gave  it  life  is  forever 
departed. 

"We  have  been  thus  specific  in  our  description 
of  the  fine  arts  for  a  more  thorough  understanding 
'of  grounds  upon  which  we  shall  base  the  claim  of 
dentistry  to  be  ranked  with  them.  No  perform- 
ance of  the  dentist  can  make  any  pretension  to  be 
a  fine  art,  separate  and  distinct  from  all  others, 
but  as  a  subdivision  or  speciality  of  one  of  the 
arts  dentistry  is  entitled  to  a  consideration  which 
it  has  never  received.  We  shall  endeavor  to  show 
this  alliance,  and  prove  that,  so  far  as  its  scope 
will  allow,  it  is  governed  by  the  same  general  rules 
•.which  control  its  allied  arts. 

"Dental  practice,  by  an  inherent  law  and  by 
'.common  consent,  is  divided  in  the  main  into  two 
departments,  the  one  commonly  termed  the 
^Operative,'  which  is  made  to  include  all  efforts  for 
±he  preservation  of  the  natural  teeth  and  all  sur- 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  253 

gical  operations  in  the  buccal  cavity;  the  other, 
called  'Mechanical,'  which  includes  the  making  of 
all  appliances  for  the  correction  of  deformities  of 
the  buccal  cavity,  but  practically  the  making  and 
inserting  of  artificial  teeth. 

*'In  the  practice  of  operative  dentistry,  as  has 
been  before  inti;nated,  there  has  grown  up  an  un- 
warrantable assumption  that  all  that  was  refined 
and  cultivated,  all  that  was  worthy  the  exercise  of 
our  noblest  faculties  in  the  pursuit  of  our  profes- 
sion, was  to  be  found  in  this  department,  and  mere 
mechanics,  wholly  unqualified  by  education  in 
science  and  art,  were  deemed  capable  of  practicing 
the  other.  The  only  performance  of  the  operative 
dentist  which  requires  a  talent  and  skill  equal  to 
the  mechanical  arts  is  the  introduction  of  fillings 
into  the  cavities  of  decay,  and  this  skill  is  mere 
manual  dexterity  guided  by  good  judgment.  Its 
highest  achievements  at  the  present  day  are  in  the 
so-called  contour  fillings  made  of  gold,  in  which 
an  attempt  is  made  to  restore  the  form  of  a  tooth 
injured  by  accident  or  decav. 

"Contour  fillings,  when  carried  to  its  highest 
state  of  perfection  in  restoring  the  actual  or  the 
typical  form  of  the  lost  organ,  can  present  no 
stronger  argument  to  be  considered  an  artistic 
performance  than  that  of  a  copy  or  an  imitation. 
If  a  copy  it  is  purely  mechanical;  if  an  imitation 
of  the  typical  it  may  lay  a  faint  claim  to  ideality. 


2  54  '^HE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

This  is  true  when  carried  to  its  ultimate;  but  prac- 
tically nine-tenths  of  what  are  called  contour  fillings 
are  not  entitled  to  any  such  distinction.  Nuggets 
of  gold  they  are,  built  on  to  deformed  teeth,  carried 
in  many  instances  far  beyond  the  borders  of  decay; 
lapping  over  and  building  upon  sold  enamel  to  a 
general  level,  obliterating  all  inequalities  and  all 
character,  and  failing  most  completely  to  illustrate 
the  possession  of  any  other  talent  than  the  skillful 
manipulation  of  gold;  excellent  advertisements  of 
the  craft  they  undoubtedly  are,  but  are  certainly 
of  very  questionable  taste. 

"Every  tooth  has  an  individual  character  and 
expression,  not  only  in  harmony  with  every  other 
in  the  same  mouth,  but  by  the  same  divine  law,  in 
harmony  with  the  features  and  the  character  of  the 
creature,  be  he  animal  or  man. 

"The  ph\'sical  characteristics  are  so  marked 
and  prominent  that  the  merest  novice  has  no  diffi- 
culty as  a  rule  in  locating  any  human  tooth  that 
has  been  removed  from  its  fellows,  and  yet  of  the 
attempts  at  restoration  of  any  large  portion  of  the 
crown  of  teeth  by  dentists  how  few  there  are  that 
bear  any  very  close  resemblance  to  the  original 
form  of  the  lost  part. 

"If  a  cast  were  taken  of  the  restoration  and 
examined  separately,  how  few  would  identify  it  as 
being  any  portion  of  any  tooth.  The  cusps,  the 
depressions,  the  sutures,  the  easy  and  graceful  out- 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  255 

lines,  and  all  that  marks  the  individual  tooth  are 
wanting.  *  -^^  x-  ^  jf  sculpture  necessarily 
ranks  below  painting  in  the  scale  of  fine  arts  be- 
cause more  limited  in  its  range,  and  painting  for 
the  same  reason  below  poetry,  we  must  therefore 
place  all  operations  on  the  natural  teeth,  as  artistic 
performances  in  rank,  below  that  of  the  substitu- 
tion of  artificial  ones. 

"As  an  art  it  is  but  a  department  of  sculpture. 
Form  in  individual  members,  form  in  grouping  and 
arrangement,  and  form  as  a  medium  of  expression 
are  equally  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
both  sculpture  and  dentistry." 

Thus  a  good  dentist  should,  indeed,  be  a  man 
of  great  refinement,  of  artistic  conception,  with  a 
true  sense  of  the  proportion  of  things  and  of  the 
harmony  of  colors.  We  have  only  to  look  at  the 
teeth  people  often  wear  to  notice  that  this  is  not 
very  often  the  case.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
in  nature  there  is  a  great  beauty  in  the  irregulari- 
ties, in  what  is  often  called  the  ugliness  of  shape 
and  color.  Because  an  even  row  of  very  white 
teeth  is  the  ideal,  it  does  not  prove  that  such  teeth 
suit  everybody.  What  can  be  more  ghastly  than 
an  old,  decrepit  personage,  with  a  bad  complexion, 
who  wears  a  double  row  of  splendid  white  teeth.-* 
What  is  more  rediculous  than  one  white,  spotless 
artificial  tooth  standing  in  the  midst  of  yellow  and 
partially   decayed  real  teeth.-*     Or,    again,    what  a 


256  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

lobsided  effect  is  produced  if  natural  teeth  on  one 
side  of  the  mouth  grew  irregularly,  while  on  the 
other  side  artificial  teeth  have  been  fixed  up  in 
regimental  order.  Yet  how  few  people  are  there 
who,  having  artificial  teeth,  have  the  good  sense 
to  ask  that  these.teeth  should  be  just  as  imperfect 
in  shape,  position  and  color  as  the  real  teeth  were 
they  are  destined  to  replace? 

If  we  have  not  ideal  teeth  the  probabilities  are 
that  there  are  many  other  things  in  feature  and 
complexion  which  also  are  far  from  being  ideal. 
And  the  introduction  of  one  or  more  ideal  teeth 
where  the  surroundings  are  anything  but  ideal  is 
no  improvement.  It  creates  a  discordant  note, 
destroys  the  harmony  which  prevails  even  in  ugli- 
ness, and  renders  that  ugliness  more  evident  and 
more  unpleasant.  But  it  requires  a  high  concep- 
tion of  true  art  to  thoroughly  appreciate  these 
principles  and  apply  them  successfully  in  practice. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  to  find  that  distin- 
guished dentists  are  the  constant  and  appreciated 
friends  of  men  of  art  and  letters. 

Nothing  but  careful  study  and  experience  can 
develop  the  artistic  sense  to  a  degree  that  will 
enable  one  to  forecast  the  shades  of  expression 
that  it  may  be  desirable  to  give  the  patient  by  well- 
considered  alteration  in  the  length  and  edge-shape 
of  dental  organs. 

In   short,  he   must   be,    as   Dr.    ];Iarshall   says. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  257 

* 'thoroughly  conversant  with  physics^  with  me- 
chanics and  with  metallurgy.  He  must  acquire  a 
delicacy  of  touch  and  a  manipulative  skill  oi  the 
very  highest  order;  his  eye  must  be  trained!  to  ai 
keen  perception  of  form,  color  and  harnraony^  and 
his  hand  to  execute  the  thoughts  of  his  bradia — in 
other  words  he  must  be  an  artisan,  artist  aindl  phy- 
sician all  in  one." 

DENTISTRY  AS  AN  ART  AND  SCIENCF. 

These  two  words  seem  to  be  used  by  thie  large 
majority  of  writers  and  speakers  regardless  oi  true 
diction.  Authors  often  use  the  former  word  when 
the  meaning  of  the  latter  is  inferred  and  vice  versa, 
There  is  an  art  of  dentistry  and  a  science  of  den- 
tistry. This  confusion  does  not  only  exist  m  the 
dental  literature,  but  is  also  present  in  other  de- 
partments of  scientific  research,  and  is  especially 
found  in  German  works  of  art  and  science-  With 
the  German  writers  the  etymology  of  the  wo^vd  for 
art  secured  a  long  continuance  for  this  ambrgi?ity. 
The  word  "Kunst"  was  employed  indiscrisni^Mately 
in  both  the  senses  of  the  primitive  'Tchkaon,"  to 
signify  *'I  can,"  and  later  the  word  "Wisseiisclaaft"' 
came  to  use,  and  designated  'Teh  kenn;,"' or  "I 
know."  But  the  word  **Wissenschaft,"  o-r  science, 
was  not  coined  until  late  in  the  17th  cesitury,.  and 
it  is  largely  due  to  the  recent  use  of  this  word  that 
the  loose  interchange   exists   between   ^t  and   the 


258  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 


« 


word  kiinst   or  art.      On    this   interesting    subject 
the  following:^ 

"The  term  dentistry  is  appropriately  used  to 
denote  the  business  or  the  place  of  business.  As 
a  business  it  includes  both  the  science  and  the  art 
of  treating,  preserving,  and  artificially  substitu- 
ting teeth.  Dentistry  is  both  a  science  and  an 
art,  while  it  evolves  much  that  is  purely  mechanical. 
Science  is  the  architect,  mechanical  art  the  builder; 
science  discovers  the  want  and  the  means  of  sup- 
ply, art  attains  the  ends.  Science  prevails,  art 
avails.  Science,  like  'charity,  seeketh  not  her  ov\'n, 
vaunteth  not  herself;'  but  art  is  fond  of  pecuniary 
reward.  Hence  the  scientific  are  few,  the  artists 
many.  Consulting  ease  of  enunciation,  we  say 
'arts  and  sciences';  but  in  fact  science  occupies  the 
foreground;  art  following  reaps  the  harvest.  Sci- 
ence acquaints  herself  with  the  whole  economy  of 
animal  teeth,  with  their  matter  and  their  manner, 
their  origin  and  their  end,  with  all  their  facts,  in 
all  their  forms  and  in  all  their  varieties,  their  con- 
nection with  and  adaptation  to  the  varied  modes 
of  animal  existence;  and  why  properly  formed 
teeth  are  unnecessary  to  some  forms  of  existence 
and  indispensable  to  others;  why  wanting  in  rep- 
tiles, creeping  things,  and  flying  fowl;  why  the 
hig"b.er  order   of  animals   scarcely   subsist   without 

*25sejBiaJ  Cosmos,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  314-315. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  259 

them;  why,  with  many,  the  duration  of  the  teeth 
is  the  measure  of  their  existence. 

"Science  would  know  w^hy  the  infinite  variety 
of  form  and  size,  from  the  thistly  jaw  of  the  smaller 
aquatics,  to  the  movable  envenomed  fang  of  the 
serpent,  up  to  the  powerful  war  weapon  of  the 
tiger,  the  lion,  the  bear,  the  whale,  and  the  mas- 
todon; and  why  the  peculiarity  in  number,  in 
structure,  and  form  of  the  human  teeth;  why  both 
deciduous  and  permanent;  why  come  in  the  time 
and  order  they  do;  why  partly  vital  and  partly 
not;  why  incapable  of  extension  and  growth  and 
of  repairing  their  fractures  or  abrasions;  why  sub- 
ject to  decomposition  and  rottenness;  why  the 
medium  of  so  much  pain;  and  what  are  remedies 
for  their  diseases?  Science,  too,  must  understand 
the  chemical  as  well  as  vital  organism  of  the  teeth; 
the  matter  and  the  manner  of  their  composition 
and  formation,  the  arteries,  veins  and  nerves,  and 
all  the  ramifying  capillaries  and  nerve-fibrils,  as 
well  as  the  corpuscles,  tissues,  and  granules  that 
enter  into  their  composition  and  organism.  Sci- 
ence would  understand  the  entire  functions  of  the 
teeth  and  the  means  of  securing  them  in  their  nor- 
Tnal  condition  and  appropriate  use. 

"Mechanical  dentistry,  as  such,  has  little  or 
nothing  to  do  with  the  animal  economy;  but  as  an 
art  dentistry  seeks  the  hand  of  science,  and  by 
her  would  be  led  and  guided.      It  would  supply  the 


26o  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

artificial  remedies  and  mechanical  appliances-- 
agreeably  to  the  teachings  of  science,  adopt  and 
adjust  all  her  fixtures  and  mechanical  powers  and 
agents,  remove  all  obstructions  to  the  health  of 
teeth,  and  supply  losses  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  nature  as  discovered  by  science. 

"The  dentistry  of  the  operating  chair  is  no  less 
mechanical,  though  more  artistic,  than  that  of  the 
laboratory.  Indeed,  mechanical  skill  and  artistic 
display  make  their  happiest  efforts  in  perfecting 
the  form  and  external  condition  of  the  natural 
teeth.  While  some  operations  are  more  strictly 
surgical,  the  whole  class  of  operations  of  the 
dentist,  when  performed  in  accordance  with  scien- 
tific principles,  deserve,  as  they  have  received,  the 
appellation  of  dental  surgery." 

"There  is  a  science*  of  medicine  and  there  is  an 
art;  and  it  is  possible  for  a  scholar  to  be  deeply 
interested  and  highly  cultivated  in  the  grand 
science  without  pretending  to  be  even  a  tyro  in 
the  art.  He  may  have  spent  years  in  his  labra- 
tory  in  the  investigation  of  the  supposed  origin  of 
disease  without  having  the  slightest  skill  in  detect- 
ing or  distinguishing  the  simplest  malady  at  the 
bedside.  He  may,  in  short,  be  a  deep  student  of 
the  science  without  being  an  expert  in  the  art. 
The  science  and  the  art  are  to  this  extent  divided. 


*C.  M.   Wright.  D.  D.    S.,   Ohio   State   Journal   of   Dental    Science 
vol.  III.,  p.  17. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  261' 

A  physician  might,  in  his  leisure  hours,  acquire  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  science  of  dentistry;  he 
might  become  expert  in  making  preparations  of 
dental  tissues  for  histological  studies,  for  the  investi- 
gation of  the  theories  in  regard  to  dental  caries; 
he  might  become  well  versed  in  a  knowledge  of 
the  general  pathological  conditions  of  the  teeth, 
and  yet,  if  called  to  the  dentist's  operating  chair, 
could  not  diagnosticate  an  incipient  alveolar 
abscess,  nor  an  inflamed  pulp,  nor  a  pulp  chamber 
filled  with  gas;  not  to  mention  the  excavating  of  a 
carious  cavity  and  replacing  with  any  dentist's 
materials.  He  does  not  possess  the  Art  of  Den- 
tistry. 

"The  science  of  dentistry  is  a  part  of  the  science 
of  medicine.  I  wish  to  say  this  distinctly  and 
'dogmatically.  It  is  a  fact  not  affected  by  the  dis- 
putes of  doctors  or  dentists.  The  science  of  den- 
tistry is  a  branch  of  the  science  of  medicine  in  its 
broadest  signification;  it  springs  from  the  same- 
root;  it  is  nourished  from  the  same  fluid  that  circu- 
lates in  the  parent  trunk  and  all  the  other  branches. 
I  refer  only  to  the  science,  so-called,  and  not  at  all 
to  the  art.  Here  we  must  make  a  distinction. 
The  art  of  medicine  and  the  art  of  dentistry  have- 
but  very  little  in  common  as  generally  practiced 
in  this  country.  And  the  art  itself  is  so  distinct 
from  the  science  in  dentistry  and  medicine  that 
men  do  become  skillful  and  successful  doctors  and 


262  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

dentists  with  but  a  limited  capital  of  general 
science — but,  in  its  stead,  cultivated  perceptions 
and  trained  fingers.  The  }-oung  graduate  of  sev- 
eral native  and  foreign  schools  and  universities 
may  really  possess  very  much  more  knowledge  of 
what  is  called  the  science  of  medicine  than  the  old 
practitioner,  and  yet  you  and  I  would  prefer  to 
trust  the  man  of  art  rather  than  the  man  of 
science.  The  old  practitioner,  if  possessed  of 
natural  talent  (and  this,  however  important,  is 
like  beaut}' — possessed  only  by  a  few,  though 
desired  by  the  many),  has  his  senses  cultivated 
to  the  point  of  intuition.  He  sees  at  a  glance — he 
arrives  at  a  correct  conclusion  instantaneously — by 
an  unknown-and  unregarded  mental  process,  that 
only  experienced  observations,  practiced  judgment, 
cultivation  and  habit  can  give.  The  art  is  the  im- 
portant part.  The  science  has  no  other  object, 
finally,  than  the  practice  of  the  art." 

Dr.  Bonwill  even  goes  further  into  the  analysis 
of  the  etymology  of  the  use  of  art  or  science  in 
connection  with  dentistry  and  says:^ 

"Every  year  there  is  fresh  vennom  hurled 
against  it,t  or  any  reference  thereto,  and  it  would 
seem  to  have  fallen  from  the  high  eminence  which 
it  had  in  the  early  days.  The  good  old  name  has 
a  very  strange   synonym  (prosthesis),  which  might 

♦Western  Dental  Journal,  vol.  II.,  p.  11. 
tMechanical  Dentistry. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  265 

be  well  if  it  were  confined  to  the  supply  alone  of 
artificial  dentures.  A  moment's  reflection,  how- 
ever, will  show  that  when  we  attempt  to  divide 
dentistry  into  operative  and  prosthetic  or  mechan- 
ical, we  do  injustice  to  our  profession,  and  we 
assume  a  false  position  for  our  great  art,  which  is 
founded  almost  exclusively  on  our  abililty  as 
mechanicians,  and  without  which,  to  a  great 
degree,  we  would  be  helpless. 

"What  is  science.'* 

*  'Science  is  a  systematic  and  orderly  arrangement 
of  knowledge. 

"Facts  and  truths  are   the   ultimate  principles. 

"Pure  science  is  a  knowledge  of  forms,  causes^ 
or  laws. 

"While  both  science  and  art  are  synonymous, 
as  they  investigate  truth,  science  is  restricted  to- 
the  inquiry  for  knowledge  and  art  for  the  sake  of 
production. 

"The  most  perfect  state  of  science  will  be  the 
high  and  accurate  inquiry,  and  the  perfection  of 
art  the  most  apt  and  efficient  system  of  rules,  art 
always  throwing  itself  into  the  form  of  rules. 

"What  are  the  sciences  which  have  been  so- 
long  recognized  as  seven  in  number? 

"Grammar,  logic,  rhetoric,  arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, astronomy,  and  music. 

"You  perceive  that  medicine,  law,  and  theology- 
are  not  mentioned.      They  are  professions." 


264  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

MECHANICAL  DEXTISTRV  VIS.  DENTAL  PROSTHESIS. 

In  18S3  the  American  Dental  Association  ap- 
-pointed  a  committee  on  dental  literature  and  no- 
menclature, and  the  committee's  report  in  the 
following  year  read  in  part  as  follows: 

"In  the  art  and  science  of  the  dental  profession 
there  are  many  distinctive  names  and  phrases. 
For  the  most  part,  perhaps,  these  are  well  chosen, 
and  as  expressive  as  is  possible  in  the  present  state 
of  our  language.  There  are,  however,  quite  a 
.number  of  nominations  of  very  questionable  pro- 
•priet}-.  To  a  few  of  these  we  now  propose  to  call 
attention. 

"Mechanical  Dentistrv. — This  phrase  has 
long  been  used  to  designate  that  part  of  dental 
science  and  art  which  has  to  do  with  the  manufac- 
ture and  insertion  of  artificial  teeth  and  all  that 
pertains  to  it.  So  far  as  the  needs  of  mechanical 
skill  are  concerned  this  name  may  be  sufficiently 
distinctive,  but  it  is  not  sufficiently  extended  in  its 
reach.  Some  may  execute  well  in  a  mechanical 
aspect,  and  yet  signally  fail  in  the  production  and 
application  of  substitutes  for  lost  teeth  and  the 
restoration  of  adjacent  parts.  The  name  that  will 
embrace  both  these  ideas,  namely,  that  of  mechan- 
ism and  of  art,  that  sjaall  enable  the  application  of 
.it  to  the  parts  here  indicated,  is  that  which  should 
ibe  employed,  and  in  a  search  of  some  extent  no 
:better  term  occurs  .far  this  jiam^  than  'dental  pros- 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  265 

thesis.'  Some  have  been  disposed  to  change  the 
form  of  the  phrase  'prosthetic  dentistry,'  The 
other  is  a  better  phrase,  we  think.  This  nomi- 
nation is  slowly  but  surely  making  its  way  into  the 
literature  of  our  profession.  It  will  probably  be 
used  ere  long  to  the  exclusion  of  the  phrase  'me- 
chanical dentistry.' 

'  'Operative  Dentistry.  — This  name  or  phrase 
is  usually  employed  and  properly  so  to  designate 
operations  upon  the  natural  teeth  for  their  preser- 
vation, or  rescuing  them  from  the  ravages  of 
disease.  It  embraces  operations  upon  and  treat- 
ment of  the  natural  teeth,  and  is  sufificiently  clear 
and  distinctive.  There  has  been  a  little  disposi- 
tion in  some  quarters  to  drop  this  name  and  em- 
brace everything  done  in  the  mouth  upon  both  the 
hard  and  soft  tissues  in  the  name  of  'oral  surgery.' 
This  may  with  great  propriety  be  applied  to  all 
•operations  upon  the  soft  and  hard  parts  in  and  im- 
mediately about  the  mouth,  but  the  nature  of  the 
operations  upon  the  teeth  is  so  different  from  those 
performed  upon  the  other  parts  of  the  mouth  as  to 
justly  entitle  them  to  a  distinctive  name.  There 
is  sometimes  an  effort  made  to  have  a  name  em- 
brace too  much,  and  this  would  seem  to  be  a  case 
of  that  kind." 

The   committee    are    to    be    congratulated    for 

having   partially  shown  why  the   term   mechanical 

•  dentistry  is  not  properly  applied,  and  their  recom- 


266  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

mendation  of  the  term  "dental  prosthesis"  should 
receive  a  more  general  regard,  especially  by  the 
dental  colleges  and  dental  authors.  But  the  report 
is  not  without  grave  mistakes,  and  the  primary 
one  looms  up  in  the  term  "operative  dentistry." 
On  close  investigation  I  fail  to  learn  of  the  real 
difference  between  the  terms  dental  prosthesis  and 
operative  dentistry,  as  suggested  by  the  committee. 
Does  the  committee  infer  that  the  dentist  prac- 
ticing dental  prosthesis  does  not  operate?  and  also, 
that  the  doctor  who  makes  a  specialty  of  operative 
dentistry  does  not  practice  and  follow  the  prin- 
ciples of  prosthetics?  In  both  of  these  grand 
divisions  of  dentistry  the  dentist  operates.  For 
example,  in  prosthesis,  if  when  the  dentist  sets  a 
Richmond  or  other  crown  does  he  not  operate; 
does  he  not  prepare  the  root  of  the  tooth;  does  he 
not  operate  on  organic  matter?  And,  on  the  con- 
trary, when  the  so-called  operative  dentist  inserts 
a  large  gold  filling,  does  he  not  "add  to,"  "re- 
place," "affix,"  or  "restore?"  If  so,  he  is  purely 
practicing  dental  prosthesis.  The  terms  dental 
prosthesis,  as  now  recommended  by  this  national 
committee,  is  correct,  but  we  are  obliged  to  have 
a  future  committee  which  will  coin  a  proper  term 
for  the  now  so-called  operative  dentist.  The 
following  from  the  Dental  Cosmos  is  interesting  on 
this  confusion  of  dental  nomenclature  and  reads: 
"We    have   divided   dental    art    into    medical, 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  26/ 

surgical  and  prosthetic.  The  two  first  connect  it 
with  a  healing  art  and  demand  a  medical  education; 
but  the  characteristic  element  of  dentistry  is  its 
prosthetics — just  as  therapeutics  is  the  specific 
function  of  the  physician.  To  remove  diseased 
structure  and  replace  it  with  gold — to  remove 
diseased  organs  and  replace  them  with  porcelain — 
is  the  work  which  demands  nine-tenths  of  the  den- 
tist's time;  success  in  which  gives  him  his  reputa- 
tion. 

"You  may  call  the  one  operative  dentistry  and 
the  other  mechanical  dentistry,  if  you  choose;  but 
each  consists  in  a  series  of  operations  and  both  are 
purely  mechanical  manipulations  of  material,  by 
means  of  instruments;  both,  also,  are  acts  of  re- 
placement. I  think  it,  therefore,  more  exact  and 
descriptive  to  subdivide  the  peculiar  work  of  den- 
tistry into — structural  and  organic  prosthesis. 

''Both  are  so  difficult  that  highest  excellence  in 
either  department  is  rare,  and  scarcely  ever  do  we 
meet  with  a  double  'first-class.'  Hence  the  prac- 
tice of  dentistry  is  itself  subdivided,  following  the 
example  of  its  parent  art.  But  subdivision  does 
not  imply  less  honor  in  the  pursuit,  so  long  as  we 
recognize,  in  preparing  for  it,  the  necessity  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  whole  art  of  which  it  forms  a 
part."^ 

That   the    term   mechanical    is   and    should    be 

♦Dental  Cosmos,  vol  XVI.,  p.  500. 


268  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

obsolete,  as  used  to  designate  dental  prosthesis, 
this  clipping  from  an  able  treatise  by  the  famous 
Dr.  John  Allen  is  of  worth:* 

"It  is  generally  conceded  that  America  has  bet- 
ter dentists,  and  more  of  them  in  proportion  to 
population,  than  any  other  nation  on  the  globe; 
they  are  doing  all  in  their  power  to  stay  the  pro- 
gress of  the  loss  of  human  teeth  with  which  we  are 
afflicted,  and  their  timely  aid  has  been  crowned 
with  unparalled  success.  But  still,  the  immense 
number  of  teeth  that  are  annually  lost  causes  a 
great  demand  for  artificial  dentures — a  large  and 
important  branch  of  dental  practice. 

"In  the  construction  of  these  substitutes  we 
should  approximate  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
natural  organs,  keeping  the  mind's  eye  upon  at 
least  three  important  points  to  be  attained,  viz. : 
mastication,  enunciation  and  restoration  of  the 
natural  form  and  expression  of  the  teeth,  mouth 
and  face.  But  how  to  attain  these  ends  under  all 
the  different  circumstances  we  meet  with  in  this 
department  is  a  problem  not  so  easily  solved  as 
many  suppose;  for  artificial  dentistry  differs  widely 
from  any  other  branch  of  business  pertaining  to 
mechanism. 

"For  example,  the  mechanic  works  by  well- 
known  rules  and  laws  that  have  been  long  and  well 
established,    and  he  follows  the  same  routine  with 

♦Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  XI.,  p.  485. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.-  269 

his  rule,  compass  and  square  that  thousands  of 
others  did  who  preceded  him,  all  producing  the 
same  practical  results.  The  architect  of  the  pres- 
ent day  has  the  same  well-established  principles 
to  guide  him  now  that  were  employed  by  the 
ancients. 

*'The  different  styles  of  architecture  known  as 
Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  were  the  favorite 
orders  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  their 
most  palmy  days,  and  these  orders,  with  slight 
modifications,  have  been  transmitted  with  mathe- 
matical precision  to  the  present  time. 

"Watchmaking  is  all  done  by  fixed  rules  which 
the  workmen  have  only  to  follow  in  order  to  pro- 
duce good  time-pieces.  Thousands  of  those  little 
wheels  are  made  just  alike,  and  placed  in  cases  in 
precisely  the  same  relative  position  to  each  other, 
and  all  will  serve  exactly  the  purposes  intended. 
Numerous  branches  of  mechanism  are  successfully 
pursued  by  men  of  moderate  capacity,  by  simply 
adhering  to  certain  fixed  rules  and  principles  in 
executing  their  work. 

''But,  in  the  construction  of  artificial  dentures, 
there  are  no  fixed  rules  to  guide  the  dentist,  for  he 
has  no  two  cases  alike;  therefore  a  rule  that  would 
apply  in  one  instance  would  not  hold  good  in 
another.  If  he  should  make  a  thousand  sets  of 
teeth,  all  just  alike,  upon  one  model,  he  would  find 
but  one  set  out  of  that  whole  number  that  could 


2/0  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

be  worn,  and  that  only  by  the  one  person  from 
whose  mouth  the  model  was  taken.  Therefore, 
instead  of  working  by  rule  and  scribe,  as  the  me- 
chanic does,  the  skillful  dentist  is  ever  devising 
ways  and  means  to  meet  the  various  requirements 
of  each  particuliar  ease. 

"The  teeth  give  character  to  the  physiognomy 
of  persons;  therefore  as  great  a  variety  of  ex- 
pressions should  be  given  them  as  there  are  indi- 
viduals for  whom  they  are  intended.  Here  the 
skill  of  the  artist  is  required  in  order  to  avoid  an 
unnatural  contrast,  that  would  lead  to  detection; 
for  }-ou  will  recollect  it  is  the  height  of  art  to  con- 
ceal art. 

"  'The  dentist  who  is  a  true  artist  is  not  am- 
bitious to  have  his  work  bear  the  impress  of  arti- 
ficial teeth,  but  on  the  contrary,  that  they  should 
possess  that  depth  of  tone,  natural  form,  and. truth- 
ful expression  which  characterized  the  natural 
organs. 

"  'Varying  the  position  of  the  teeth  will  change 
the  appearance  of  the  mouth,  just  in  proportion  as 
they  differ  from  the  natural  teeth.  Hence,  in 
many  persons,  their  former  expression  is  entirely 
lost  and  distortion  has  taken  the  place  of  sym- 
metry. 

"  'A  want  of  taste  and  skill  in  the  construction 
and  adaptation  of  artificial  teeth  results  in  rude 
and   graceless   work,  which  contrasts  widely  with 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  2/ 1 

that  of  the  true  artist,  who  carefully  studies  the 
tone,  position,  and  expression  of  every  tooth,  and 
restores  the  harmony  which  nature  had  originally 
stamped  upon  the  features  of  his  patient. 

**  *A  few  slight  touches  of  the  brush  in  the 
hands  of  a  skillful  artist,  will  change  the  \^^hole 
expression  of  his  picture.  So  with  the  teeth;  a 
slight  inclination,  outward  or  inward,  or  variation 
in  length,  will  change  the  entire  expression  of  the 
mouth.' 

"Again,  the  deflection  of  the  various  muscles  of 
the  face,  consequent  upon  the  loss  of  the  natural 
teeth,  presents  another  class  of  physiognomical 
defects,  which  also  comes  within  the  range  of 
dental  practice;  and  the  time  has  come  when  the 
dentist  is  expected  to  raise  the  sunken  portion  of 
the  face  to  their  original  contour  by  artificial  means. 

"Whether  this  could  be  done  without  injury  to 
the  muscles  thus  raised  remained  a  problem  to  be 
solved  by  an  American  dentist.  This  question 
being  settled  for  all  coming  time  that  no  injury 
results  from  wearing  properly  constructed  dentures 
with  attachments  for  this  purpose,  it  has  now  be- 
come a  practical  and  important  feature  in  dental 
prosthesis.  The  sunken  portions  of  the  face  can 
be  raised  by  means  of  attachments  or  prominences 
made  upon  the  denture  of  such  form  and  size  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  various  cases  that  are 
presented  to  the  practitioner. 


2/2  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

"In  view  of  the  facts  here  presented,  and  of 
what  is  required  of  the  dentist  of  the  present  day 
we  would  urge  the  importance  of  a  higher  standard 
of  qualifications  in  this  department  than  seems  to 
have  been  attained  by  a  majority  of  those  who  are 
engaged  in  this  branch  of  our  profession. 

"The  face,  as  }-ou  are  aware,  is  formed  of  dif- 
ferent bones  and  muscles  which  give  it  shape  and  ex- 
pression. When  the  teeth  are  lost  and  a  consequent 
absorption  of  the  alveolar  processes  takes  place, 
several  of  these  muscles  are  liable  to  fall  in  or  be- 
comn  sunken,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  accord- 
ing to  temperament.  And.  in  order  to  restore 
them  to  their  former  position,  the  dentist  should 
be  familiar  with  the  form  and  position  of  every 
bone  of  the  face,  and  know  the  origin  and  inser- 
tion of  every  muscle,  what  ones  to  raise,  and  where 
to  apply  attachments  to  the  denture;  otherwise  he 
may  produce  distortion  instead  of  restoration,  by 
underlaying  other  muscles  than  those  intended  to 
be  raised.  Here  again  the  artistic  skill  of  the 
dentist  is  brought  into  requisition.  He  should 
study  the  face  of  his  patient  as  the  artist  studies 
his  picture,  for  he  displays  his  talents  not  upon 
canvass,  but  upon  the  living  features  of  the  face; 
and  of  how  much  more  importance  is  the  living 
picture  which  reflects  even  the  emotions  of  the 
heart  than  the  lifeless  form  upon  canvas.'  In  rais- 
ing the  different  muscles  of  the  face  the  true  artist 


OF   DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  273 

will  carefully  avoid  producing  a  stiff,  restrained,  or 
puffed  appearance.  He  will  place  the  prominences 
upon  the  dentures  in  their  proper  position,  and 
make  them  of  such  form  and  size  as  to  allow  the 
muscles  to  rest,  move  or  play  upon  them  with  per- 
fect ease,  that  they  may  again  reflect  those  sensi- 
tive emotions  which  tell  of  the  inner  workings  of 
the  mind.  Or,  to  use  the  language  of  Shake- 
speare, 'Your  face,  my  Thane,  is  as  a  book  where 
men  may  read  strange  matters.' 

''Another  important  consideration  in  the  con- 
struction of  artificial  dentures  is,  that  the  materials 
of  which  they  are  formed  should  be  incorrodible  or 
chemically  pure.  ■'"  ^^         ~         ~         y~ 

"This  purity  of  materials  we  have  in  the  con- 
tinuous gum  work,  when  properly  made,  as  none 
of  the  materials  used  are  corrodible  in  the  slightest 
degree  in  the  mouth.  Again,  all  the  essential 
points  here  referred  to  can  be  attained  by  this 
mode  of  constructing  artificial  dentures.  But  too 
much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  mode, 
for  however  perfect  this  may  be  in  itself,  artistic 
taste,  skill  and  judgment  are  necessary  to  direct 
the  operator  in  his  manipulations. 

"Two  artists  (so  called)  may  employ  the  same 
method,  use  the  same  paint,  brushes,  canvas,  etc., 
in  painting  a  picture.  One  will  produce  a  perfect 
prototype  of  nature,  with  all  the  delicate  shades 
and  tints  peculiar  to  their  art,  while  the  other  makes 


2  74  '^HE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

a  mere  daub  that  is  worthless.  The  same  differ- 
ence exists  among  men  in  various  other  branches 
of  art  and  science.  In  conclusion,  allow  me  again 
to  urge  upon  our  brethren  the  great  importance  of 
bringing  into  requisition  a  much  higher  order  of 
talent  in  the  artificial  branch  of  our  profession  than 
has  heretofore  been  employed  by  a  large  number 
of  dentists,  whose  ambition  prompts  them  to  do 
the  cheapest,  not  the  best  work." 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  275; 


CONCLUSION. 


In  the  last  few  years  many  women  were  initi- 
ated into  the  scientific  mysteries  of  dentistry,  and 
this  profession  is  prominent  among  the  many  new 
occupations  opened  to  women.  In  keeping  with' 
the  enlightened  spirit  of  the  age  the  question  of 
sex  in  labor  is  being  lost  sight  of,  in  the  vast  more- 
important  consideration  of  the  quality  of  labor.  It 
is  the  work  per  se,  not  the  work  per  sex,  that  is-- 
commanding  the  attention  of  an  educated  and  dis- 
criminating public.  The  question  naturally  arises,, 
is  women  fitted  for  this  new  field.^  Is  she  endowed' 
by  nature  with  those  qualifications  necessary  for 
the  labor  in  the  vocations;  is  she  physically  and 
intellectually  adapted,  and  can  she  attain  pro- 
ficiency in  mechanical  skill  and  mathematical  pre- 
cision.-* These  questions  are  open  to  debate,  yet, 
if  we  permit  the  general  public  to  be  the  jury  and 
allow  the  suffering  masses,  who  have  received  pro- 
fessional care  at  the  woman's  hand,  to  plea,  I  am 
confident  that  the  decision  would  be  a  general  and 
grand  triumph  for  the  ladies  of  our  profession. 

The  following  sentiment  on  this  interesting- 
subject,  from  the  Dental  Cosmos,  is  fully  corrobo- 
rated by  the  liberal  representatives  of  our  profes- 
sion : 


2/6  THE    RISE,    FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

"The  time  has  long  since  passed,"  says  the 
editor,  Dr.  Edward  Kirk,  "when  the  availability 
and  fitness  of  woman  for  the  practice  of  dentistry 
can  be  successfully  questioned,  and  whatever  may 
have  been  the  difference  of  opinion  as  to  her  quali- 
fications, both  physical  and  mental,  for  this  work 
when  measured  by  the  standard  of  male  require- 
ments; the  fact  remains  that  in  dentistry,  as  in  all 
branches  of  the  great  healing  art,  Avomen  has  found 
and  successfully  occupied  a  field  of  usefulness  in 
which  the  sum  total  of  those  distinctively  feminine 
qualities,  which  go  to  make  up  an  ideal  woman- 
hood, have  been  invaluable,  and  are,  after  all,  the 
essential  factors  of  her  success  in  these  depart- 
ments. The  question,"  continues  the  editor,  "is 
not  whether  she  is  capable  of  doing  her  work  from 
a  man's  standpoint  and  by  masculine  methods,  but, 
is  there  a  sphere  of  usefulness  in  our  profession 
which  she  can  pursue  and  properly  fill  by  virtue  of 
her  womanhood,  and  achieve  success  as  woman.-' 
The  affirmation  of  this  has  been  demonstrated  by 
experience  and  we  believe  that  the  ennobling  in- 
fluence of  her  activities  in  dentistry  will  be  in- 
creasingly felt  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  whole 
dental  profession." 

In  this  memorable  American  year,  1892,  the 
Woman's  Dental  Association  was  organized  in 
Philadelphia,  and  like  the  man}-  similar  organiza- 
tions,   its    object    is   to    promote    the    professional 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  2/7 

interests  of  its  members  through  the  advantages 
which  association  confers. 

Dr.  Truman  introduced  the  lady  dentists  in  a 
valedictory  delivered  March  i,  1866.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  history  the  following  extracts  from  the  vale- 
dictory are  subjoined:- 

"When  the  professions  cease  to  be  objects  of 
interest  to  the  human  intellect,  that  intellect  may 
be  said  to  be  in  its  decadence,  if  it  has  not  already 
lapsed  into  barbarism.  The  professions  lead  the 
civilizations  of  the  world;  as  they  advance  the 
nations  advance  to  higher  intellectual  attainments. 
I,  therefore,  welcome  all  (who  feel  they  have  some- 
thing to  do  therein)  to  the  profession  to  which  I 
belong,  and  gladly  would  I  welcome  still  more  than 
the  world  generally  concedes  have  a  right  to  be 
there. 

"The  recognition  of  the  right  of  every  human 
being  to  an  equal  share  in  the  privilege  we  enjoy 
has  not  yet  become  a  principle  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice as  I  think  it  should.  We  say  to  one-half  of 
the  human  family  stitch,  stitch,  darn  stockings, 
make  shoes  for  a  shilling,  stand  behind  counters 
for  two  or  three  dollars  a  week,  do  anything,  but 
don't  enter  the  sacred  precinct  that  v/e  have 
marked  out  for  our  peculiar  benefit.  Every  human 
soul  has  certain  qualities;  these  should  mark  its 
pathway  through  life.      Talent  is   of   no   sex,  color 

*Itenis  of  Interest,  vol .  XI.,  p.  530,  18S9. 


2/8  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

or  clime;  but  is  an  inheritance  from  the  Creator, 
given  to  be  fully  cultivated  in  the  direction  it 
leads.  Hence,  in  my  judgement,  any  attempt  to 
cripple  the  aspiration  of  a  God-implanted  intelli- 
gence is  unworthy  the  age  in  which  we  live  and  is 
but  little  short  of  blaspheming  against  the  Creator 
himself.  As  we  keep  any  number  of  the  human 
race  in  a  condition  lower  than  ourselves,  just  in 
that  proportion  will  the  degradation  be  a  mill-stone 
around  our  necks.  The  reserve  of  the  proposition 
is  also  true;  as  we  advance  the  masses  in  intelli- 
gence and  the  means  of  acquiring  information  and 
pecuniary  reward  for  labor,  will  the  civilization  of 
all  be  increased.  Hence,  as  an  individual,  I  wel- 
come all  classes  to  the  profession  of  which  I  am  a 
member,  and  would  make  but  one  requirement: 
Do  you  believe  you  are  qualified  for  it  and  can  do 
better  in  it  than  any  other  position  in  life.' 

"Entertaining  these  views,  I  rejoice  that  den- 
tistry, though  the  youngest  of  the  professions,  has 
welcomed  women  to  two  of  our  State  organizations 
to  full  membership  and  have  recognized  her  as  a 
co-laborer  in  a  field  full  of  interest,  and  one  in  my 
judgment  to  which  she  is  well  adapted.  ^  ^  ^ 
Have  not  all  parents  who  fail  to  give  their  daugh- 
ters a  profession  or  trade  neglected  one  of  the 
plainest  requirements  of  life.'  Certainly.  The 
world  is  full  of  misery  on  that  account.  I  am  sick 
of   that   can't  and    hypocracy   that   would   prevent 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  2/9 

women  doing  anything  to  earn  her  daily  bread, 
and  then  call  it  a  dispensation  of  Providence  when 
she  is  left  to  support  a  family  by  spending  her  days 
and  nights  over  the  needle.  Let  your  daughters 
enter  the  professions  on  anything  they  can  earn  a 
livlihood  at,  and  regard  it  as  a  dispensation  of 
Providence  that  he  has  in  His  wisdom  given  your 
daughters  brains  enough  to  take  a  position  in  life 
superior  to  that  you,  possibly,  have  ever  been  able 
to  fill." 

In  consequence  of  the  liberal  advantages  offered 
in  dentistry  to  artists,  scientists  and  students,  we 
to-day,  as  a  profession,  stand  almost  alone  in  the 
realization  of  our  imagination,  the  equal  of  any,  the 
superior  of  almost  any  other  specialty  in  point  of 
success.  But  because  of  the  fact  we  must  not 
permit  the  thought  to  become  lethargic  and  assume 
an  attitude  indifferent  to  our  surroundings.  For, 
if  we  stop  to  sleep,  others  with  that  assiduity  of 
purpose  and  labor  will  excel  us  in  their  pursuits, 
while  we  then  will  assume  a  position  of  mediocrity. 
Man  is  too  often  deluded  with  false  ideas  of  great- 
ness; to  cease  to  labor  is  a  dead-lock  to  progress, 
and  to  stop  thinking,  but  another  form  or  name  for 
imbecility.  During  the  last  two  decades  the  im- 
proved methods,  larger  range  and  more  exact  style 
of  inquiry,  and  the  assistance  and  hints  which  one 
branch  of  study  has  given  to  others  has  produced 
the  most   satisfactory   results.      The  inquiries   are 


2  80  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

not  yet  complete;  they  seem  on  the  contrary  to 
have  only  commenced,  and  promise  ultimately  to 
satisfy  all  the  useful  purposes  and  legitimate  curi- 
osity of  the  many  spectators. 

Kind  advice  can  be  found  in  Dr.  John  S. 
Marshall's  address  recently  delivered  before  a  class 
of  dental  students.      He  said: 

"Knowledge  proved  and  classified  becomes 
science.  The  sciences  underlie  the  intelligent 
practice  of  all  the  professions;  consequently,  to  be 
educated  for  a  profession  means  that  you  shall 
have  knowledge  of  those  sciences  upon  which  it  is 
based,  and  upon  which  it  must  depend  for  its  intel- 
ligent practice.  The  dental  student  who  com- 
mences his  practice  with  the  idea  of  obtaining  his 
degree  with  just  as  little  expenditure  of  time  and 
energy  as  is  possible  under  the  rules  of  the  insti- 
tution with  which  he  is  connected,  will  make  a 
dismal  failure  of  both  student  and  professional  life. 
Justice  will  repay  him  in  the  same  coin  to  the  very 
last  decimal,  and  in  the  same  spirit  with  which 
they  were  meted  out  by  him  during  his  student 
days." 

The  doctor  continued  by  saying:  "To  be  suc- 
cessful in  any  profession  in  these  times  the  indi- 
vidual must  be  well  grounded  in  the  fundamental 
sciences  that  underlie  the  superstructure  of  special 
professional  knowledge;  he  must  begin  at  the  very 
foundation  stones,  and  step  by  step  go   over  every 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  28 1 

principle  taught  until  he  arrives  at  a  correct  under- 
standing of  their  application  and  their  individual 
and  mutual  relationship  and  dependencies." 

Thus,  cherishing  these  well-worded  sentiments, 
and  knowing  full  well  that  you,  too,  agree  with 
these  worthy  remarks,  I  began  the  history  of  dental 
prosthesis  with  the  study  of  the  subject  at  the  very 
foundation  stone,  and  step  by  step  have  gone  over 
every  principal  taught. 

To  perfect  yourself  in  this  branch  should  be  an 
upper  thought  of  mind,  and  in  order  to  accomplish 
this  you  will  have  no  easy  task,  for,  as  Dr.  Harris 
says,  "Prosthetic  dentistry  constitutes  by  far  the 
largest  and  most  difficult  part  of  dentistry,  and 
thus  makes  it  a  distinct  branch  of  the  Art  of  Medi- 
cine and  gives  to  it  the  power  to  add,  as  it  does  to 
health,  comfort  and  the  enjoyrnent  of  life." 

As  regard  the  benefit  derived  from  an  histori- 
cal review  of  dental  prosthesis,  such  as  I  have 
earnestly  endeavored  to  portray,  I  am  of  the  same 
mind  as  Dr.  Patrick,  who  once  said:  "I  have  been 
of  the  opinion  that  there  is  a  growing  desire  in  our 
profession  to  be  more  conversant  with  the  ancient 
as  well  as  the  modern  history  of  dentistry  in  its 
several  departments — that  there  is  a  conviction 
that  the  literature  of  dentistry  has  been  neglected. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  our  profession  everywhere  will  be  convinced 
that  the  importance   of   becoming  more  intimately 


-2  82  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

acquainted  with  the  researches  and  the  views  enter- 
tained on  the  subject  of  dentistry  by  some  of  the 
most  intellectual  men  the  world  has  ever  produced. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  profession  will  see  the 
advantages  and  necessity  of  a  dental  encyclopaedia 
or  summary  of  dental  knowledge;  not  a  system, 
but  a  work  that  would  rescue  valuable  purposes 
relative  to  dentistry  that  are  now  resting  in  com- 
parative obscurity  in  the  archives  of  dental  society, 
and  that  are  now  in  a  manner  lost  to  the  profes- 
sion. One  great  advantage  the  profession  would 
have  in  the  possession  of  such  a  work  would  be, 
that  when  a  new  theory  is  advanced,  it  could  be 
tested  by  comparing  it  with  doctrines  of  a  similar 
nature  advanced  in  former  times.  Certainly  every 
age  should  profit  by  the  experience  of  the  preced- 
ing one;  but  without  a  record  of  history  of  what 
has  been  accomplished,  each  investigator  com- 
mences a  new  series  of  trials  and  wanders  over  the 
same  ground  in  research  of  truths  which  have  long 
ago  been  discovered.  The  views  of  our  prede- 
cessors may  be  justly  regarded  as  beacon  lights  set 
up  to  guide  our  footsteps  from  pitfall  of  error.  "'^ 

One  of  the  most  gratifying  evidences  of  the 
progress  of  modern  dentistry  is  the  ever  increasing 
interest  manifested  in  historical  research  and  study 
of  the  various  branches  of  the  science.  The  pro- 
fession is  gradually  comprehending  that  the  proper 

♦Dental  Revieu-,  voL  III.,  p.  436. 


PLATE    III 


Specimens  of   Modern    Dental  Art. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  285 

way  to  learn  lessons  of  wisdom  for  the  uncertain 
future  is,  to  give  immediate  attention  to  events  of 
the  past.  All  down  the  "long  avenues  of  time" 
the  voice  of  the  departed  are  calling,  giving  us 
words  of  warning  to  avoid  the  errors  which  wrecked 
their  successes  and  attempts.  But  how  can  we 
prevent  a  similar  sad  fate  for  our  cherished  plans 
and  sail  free  from  threatening  perils  if  we  heed  not 
the  advices  of  our  forefathers,  and  remain  ignorant 
of  their  accomplishments  and  the  general  status  of 
our  profession. 

I  confidently  hope  that  those  of  you  who  have 
earnestly  followed  my  remarks  on  the  evolution  of 
dental  science  will  have  enjoyed  as  much  pleasure, 
and  reaped  a  similar  volume  of  information,  as  I 
have  in  the  compilation  of  these  historic  facts;  and 
I  trust  that  my  words  shall  have  awakened  in  you 
the  latent  admiration  for  the  profession,  that  you 
will  from  now  on  earnestly  and  persistently  labor 
to  "establish  for  our  chosen  profession  a  land- 
mark" among  all  sciences  and  vocations  that  future 
generations,  instead  of  yielding  but  reluctant  con- 
fidence, will  then  pour  forth  a  full  measure  of 
respect  and  devotion. 


286  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 


APPENDIX. 


Japanese. — His  excellency,  the  Japanese  Min- 
ister at  Washington,  explains  that  it  was  formerly 
an  almost  universal  custom  in  Japan  for  women  to 
signify  their  marriage  by  blackening  their  teeth. 

There  is  a  tradition  that  the  practice  was  intro- 
duced by  the  wife  of  a  famous  Tycoon,  who  thus 
destroyed  her  beauty  as  a  token  of  devotion  to  her 
lord  and  master.  The  tradition  is  silent  as  to  the 
husband's  sentiments  at  thus  exchanging  a  beauti- 
ful bride  for  an  ugly  wife. 

Another  origin  for  this  strange  custom,  which 
at  first  prevailed  with  both  sexes,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  contract  of  the  people  of  Japan  with 
the  natives  of  Annam,  who  chew  the  betal-nuts 
and  leaves  for  the  purpose  of  discoloring  their 
teeth.  This  effect  the  Japanese  were  said  to  have 
imitated  by  other  means.  Whatever  the  origin, 
the  custom  has  now  almost  disappeared  except 
among  old  fashioned  people  and  in  remote  parts  of 
the  Empire.* 

*The  author  is  obliged  to  Dr.  J.  Littlefield,  who  has  charge  of  the 
S.  S.  White  Dental  Manfg.  Co.'s  exhibit  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
for  the  above  information. 

A  grand  display  of  Japanese  dental  instruments  and  workman- 
ship can  be  seen  at  the  Chicago  branch  of  the  S.  S.  White  Dental 
Manufacturing  Co. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


287 


288 


A  work  has  recently  been  issued  in  the  Japan- 
ese characters  on  operative  dentistry  by  the  emin- 
ent Japanese  dentist  Dr.  J.  Watanabe  of  Tokio. 
The  Japanese  have  also  a  dental'  journal  published 
in  native  characters  and  is  issued  in  Tokio. 

American. — The  following  are  appended,  to 
more  fully  complete  the  list  of  dental  journals: 

Southern  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Dentistry. 
Published  in  1853-1854. 

Brown's  Dental  Advertiser,  Cincinnati.  Edi- 
tor, J.  M.  Brown,    1854- 185 5. 

New  York  Dental  Journal  and  Reporter,  New 
York  City.      Editor,  F.  H.  Norton.      1 858-; 860. 

Dental  Science  and  Quarterly  Art  Journal,  New 
York  City.      Editor,  A.  P.  Merrill.      1875-1876. 

Odontographic  Journal,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Edi- 
tor, J.  E.  Line.      1879 ^. 

The  Dental  Brief,  St.  Louis.  Editor,  F.  T. 
Grimes.      1881-1882. 

The  Western  Dental  Journal,  Kansas  City. 
Editor,  J.  D.  Patterson.      1886 . 

The  Southern  Dental  Journal  and  the  Dental 
Luminary  have  consolidated  under  the  name  of  the 
Southern  Dental  Journal  and  Luminary.  Editor, 
H.  H.  Johnson.      Published  at  Macon,  Ga. 

Errata. — Hippopotami  instead  of  hippotami; 
line  4,  p.  44. 

Deutsch  instead  deutch;   foot-note,  p.  91. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  289 

Josiah  instead  Jossiah;  line  21,  p.   169. 

Licentiate  instead  scentiate;  line  20,  p.   154. 

Charge  instead  chare;  line  21,  p.   179. 

One  million  instead  100,000;   line  23,  p.   194. 

Maryland  Dental  College  is  defunct;  line  9,  p. 
216. 

Jefferis  instead  Jefferies;  line  20,  p.  218. 

Chase  instead  Case;  line  4,  p.  230. 

Luminary  instead  Summary;  line  3,  p.  231. 

The  Dental  Record  was  edited  by  F.  W. 
Leonard  and  was  discontinued  in  1882;  line  28, 
p.  231. 

Kimball  instead  Kimble;  line  21,  p.  233. 


290  THE   RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


VALEDICTORY  REMARKS. 


'The   dental  profession   has  established  and  pro- 
longed the  reign  of  beauty;   it  has  added  to  the 
charms  of  social  intercourse,  and  lent  per- 
fection to  the  accents  of  eloquence;   it 
has  taken  from  old  age  its  most  un- 
welcome  feature,    and  length- 
ened enjoyable  human  life 
far  beyond  the  limit  of 
the  years  when  the 
toothless  and  pur- 
blind patriarch 
might   ex- 
claim:— 
I  have  no  pleasure  in  them." 

— Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


291 


NAME  INDEX. 


Abbott,  214. 
Achiles,  118. 
Adams,  32,  222. 
Adkinson,  204. 
^gineta,  32. 
JEglG,  88. 
^sculapius,  70,  71,  75, 

79,  85. 
^tius,  29,  65. 
Aguilar,   163. 
Albacasis,  65. 
Alcock,  192. 
Alexander    the     Great, 

27,  78. 
Alexander,  Ptolemy,  29. 
Allen,    195,    212,    222, 

223,  227,  268. 
Allport,  229,   238,  239. 
Ames,  218,  220. 
Amrou,   29. 
Anderson,  36,  59. 
Andree,   141. 
Andrieu,    142. 
Andreae,  159. 
Andromache,  81,  91. 
Angear,  222,  233. 
Ann,  Queen,   151. 
Anthony,  St.,  85. 
Apius,    141. 
Apollonia,  St.,  85. 


Apollo,  god,  75. 
Arcagathus,  90. 
Arculaus,  94. 
Aristotle,  27,  yj,  yS. 
Aristocrates,  81. 
Argus,  87. 
Arnold,  Gen.,   175. 
Arthur,  210. 
Ashton,  232. 
Aubeau,  142. 
Aurelius,  79. 
Aurivillius,    141. 
Austen,  211,  212. 
Austin,  218. 
Auzebi,  141. 
Avicenna,  in. 

B 

Bailey,  220,  221. 
Baker,  216,  225,  227. 
Bandy,  211. 
Barnes,  82. 
Bartleson,  215,  221. 
Barrett,  95,  96,  97,  222, 

223,  230,  231. 
Bates,  79. 
Bauhinus,   141. 
Baume,  158. 
Bean,   158. 
Beaupreau,  141. 
Beers,  230. 


292 


THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


Beggs,  152. 
Belzoni,  36. 
Bell,  212. 
Bennett,  203,  233. 
Bentley,  C.  E.,  204. 
Berdmore,      147,      148, 

149,   151,  164. 
Bethel,  231. 
Bing,  203. 
Bishop,  216. 
Black,  234. 
Blandy,  228. 
Blake,   145. 
Blakeney,  232. 
Blumenthal,   157. 
Blundell,   152. 
Boice,  202. 
Bond,  211. 
Bondwill,  202,  262. 
Bostwick,  224. 
Botot,  141. 
Bourdett,   141. 
Bratti,   iii. 
Brasseur,  142. 
Brauer,   144. 
Brendel  141. 
Brewer,  66. 
Bridges,  227. 
Briggs,  67. 
Briarious,  87. 
Brophy,   188,  217. 
Brown,    224,    225,   226, 

227,  228,  229,  286. 
Buckingham,   212,  213. 
Buel,  25. 
Bunon,   141. 
Burdell,  224. 


Buttner,  26,  222. 
Byrd,  231. 


Caesar,  29. 
Cali,  163. 
Calvert,  213. 
Canidia,  88. 
Carabelli,  32. 
Carleton,  99,   151. 
Carman,  202. 
Carpenter,  50,  220. 
Carstens,   163. 
Cascellius,  Sy. 
Case,  203,  218,  230. 
Cartwright,  152. 
Catching,  231. 
Caulk,  232. 
Celsus,    89,    91,  92,  93, 

121. 
Cesnola,  Gen.,  58. 
Champier,   122. 
Chance,   151. 
Chandler,  215. 
Chauliae,  94. 
Charon,  99,   100. 
Chase,  214,  287. 
Chewning,  224. 
Christensen,   163. 
Chupein,   233. 
Cianchi,   163. 
Cicero,  79,  88. 
Cigrand,  B.  J.,    11,    14, 

72,  219,  233. 
Clark,  215,   228. 
Clarkson,  218. 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


293 


Clawson,  222. 

De  Chemant,  135, 

136, 

Clayton,  216. 

140,   141. 

Clement,  28,  94. 

Delebarre,   141. 

Clendenen,     218,     219, 

Delannay,   143. 

233. 

Dembrest,  55. 

Clifford,  E.  L.,  233. 

Demosthenes,  200. 

Colson,   142. 

Dennis,  220. 

Cook,  212. 

Despre,   141. 

Cone,  211. 

De  Vigo,  94. 

Copus,  122. 

Dewey,  220. 

Cooper,   170. 

Dexter,  30,  35,  64, 

65, 

Cosmas,  St.,  1 13. 

71,    75,    78,    80, 

81, 

CouUiaux,   163. 

88,  92,  149,  164, 

i6s, 

Courtois,   141. 

166,    167,    168, 

169, 

Coyk,  211. 

173.    176,    179, 

181, 

Cravens,  216. 

183,    184,    212, 

216, 

Cransius,  141. 

225. 

Crawford,  221. 

Discorides,  68,   121 

Creighton,  36,  229. 

Diocletian,  81. 

Crenshaw,  220. 

Dwindelle,  214. 

Crissman,  I.,  219. 

Domitian,  89. 

Crito,  81. 

Dott,   163. 

Curtis,  147. 

Dubois,   143. 

Cumme,  141. 

Dunglison,  'jd. 

Cushing,  217,  220. 

Du  Chaillu,  67. 
Duchateau,   139. 

D 

Duchmin,   141. 

Daily,  216. 

Dunn,  219. 

Dalrymple,   213. 

Dunning,  214. 

Damain,  242. 

Dupont,  141. 

Damianus,   113. 

Du  Pre,  241. 

Demetrio,   iii. 

Duval,  36,  42,   66, 

68, 

Darby,  213,  217. 

75>  89. 

Dasti,  204. 

E 

Davenport,  219. 

Davis,  202. 

Eames,  60,  62,  214, 

215, 

Debarre,    140. 

232. 

294 


THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


Ebers,  32,  37. 
Ebu  Sina,  68. 
Edwards,  219. 
Elliot,  III. 
Ellis,  214. 
Erasistratus,  78. 
Estes,  228. 
Essig,  213,   217. 
Euclid,  28. 
Eustachius,   123. 
Evans,  88,  202. 


Fallopius,   123. 
Fauchard,  126,135,140, 

141. 
Faught,  232. 
Field,  222,  231. 
Fillebrown,  215. 
Finney,  212. 
Finot,   141. 
Fitch,  224. 
Flagg,    167,    169,    170, 

171,  172,  224. 
Fleurimon,   141. 
Follett,  215,  216. 
Foster,  202. 
Fouchon,   141. 
Fouke,  229. 
Foulon,   173. 
Fowler,   142. 
Fox,  123,  145,  147,  152, 

168. 
Frank,   141. 
Franklin,  229. 
Frederick,    King,     157, 
Frederick,  215. 


Freeman,  217. 
Frick,   162. 
Fronzi,   140,   141. 
Fuller,    214,   215,    228, 
232. 


Gaddens,  221. 
Gailland,  142. 
Galen,  29,   68,    81,    92, 

93,   1 1 1,  121,  1.22 
Galla,  88. 
Gamage,  175. 
Gamliel,  42. 
Gardett,   167,    173. 
Gargantua,  66. 
Garretson,  213. 
George,  Kings,  1 14,  1 16, 

148,    164. 
Germanus,  St.,  85. 
Geraudly,   141. 
Gilles,   141. 
Glaubrecht,  157. 
Goldstein,   159. 
Goodyear,   195,   196. 
Gorgas,   211,    216,  218, 

227. 
Gould,  85. 
Gray,  221. 
Griffs,  56. 
Greenwood,  Clark,  168, 

174,   175- 
Greenwood,  Isaac,  168, 

174- 
Greenwood,   John,   168^ 
174,    175,    176,    177. 
179,  180,  181,  188. 


OF  DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


295 


Griswald,  221. 
Grun,  141. 
Guearard,  139. 
Guilford,  214. 
Gunther,    122. 

H 

Hacker,  217. 

Hagenbut,  122. 

Haines,  59,  99,  102, 
119. 

Hall,  215,  219. 

Handy,  211. 

Hamelton,  150. 

Harlan,    142,    143,  233. 

Harper,  215. 

Harris,  23,  35,  141,  168, 
173,  205,  206,  207, 
209,  210,  211,  212, 
218,225,226,227,281. 

Harrison,   152. 

Hartung,  221. 

Haskell,  11,  195,  218, 
220. 

Haven,  218. 

Hawley,  233. 

Hay,  202. 

Hayden,   167,  169,   181. 

Hayes,  233. 

Head,  233. 

Heider,   158. 

Hemard,  135,  141. 

Herbert,  85,   147. 

Herodotus,  28,  30,  32, 
35,  36,  60,  63,  71. 

Herophilus,  29,  78. 

Heslopp,  141. 


Hill,  222. 
Hilscher,   141. 
Hippocrates,  65,  68,  71, 

72,  -Ji,  74,  75,  76,  TJ, 

1 1 1,  120,  122. 
Hitchcock,  215. 
Hockey,   153. 
Hodgkins,  212. 
Hoff,  216. 

Holmes,  1 14,  227,  231, 
HoUiday,  231.  [290. 

Homer,  70. 
Horace,  88. 
Houghton,  230. 
How,  202. 
Howard,  223. 
Howe,   219. 
Hubbard,  221. 
Hudson,   182. 
Hunt,  218. 
Hunter,   116,    123,   145, 

146,    149,    150,    195, 

202,  212. 
Hurlok,   147. 
Hurty,  216. 
Hygia,  75. 
Hypatia,  28. 

I 

Imber,  42. 
IngersoU,  218. 
Innocent,  94. 
Irving,  Washington,  15, 
Iszlai,   163.  [288 


Jackson,  220. 


296 


THE   RISE,  FALL  AND   REVIVAL 


James,  224. 

Jantsch,  159. 

Jefferis,   183,  218,  287. 

Jehuda,  St.,  43. 

Jeron,  157. 

Johnson,  204,  217,  221, 

229,  230,  233. 
Johnson  &  Lund,  194. 
Johnston,  35. 
Josephs,   198. 
Josse,  141. 
Joubert,  94. 
Jourdan,   141. 
Judd,  214,  215,  230. 
Justi  &  Sons,  188,   194. 

K 

Kave,  122. 

Keep,.  215. 

Keech,  216. 

Keith,  215. 

Keightley,  85. 

Kettig.  219. 

Kells,  215. 

Kerr,  49. 

Kimball,  233,  287. 

Kingsbury,   30,    34,  35, 

65,  (^T,  214. 
Kingsley,  28,  214,  243. 
Kirk,  142,  152,229,233, 
Knight,  216.  [276. 

Koch,  160. 

Koecker,  184,  185,  224. 
Krauterman,  157. 


Lafayette,  166. 


Laf  argue,  140. 

Land,  202. 

Landerer,  79. 

Lawrence,  202,  216. 

Lazuer,  222. 

Lecania,  88. 

Lecluse,  141. 

Lees,  221. 

Lefaule,  150. 

Lelius,  88. 

Lemair,  141,    166,  167, 

169,    173. 
Leonard,  F.  W.,  287. 
Leonicenus,  122. 
Leslie,  228. 
Leutin,  158. 
Levy,  84. 

Lewis,  22,  147,  230. 
Line,  286. 
Litch,  213. 
Littig,  214. 
Littlefield,  284. 
Logan,  136,  202. 
Longbotham,  223. 
Louis,  King,    114,  115, 

116. 
Lucy,  St.,  85. 
Ludwig,  203. 
Lund,  229,  230,  233. 
Lydston,  233. 

M 

Mackall,  203. 
Maclay,  176. 
Magill,  21. 
Marcus,  St.,  85. 
Marshall,  219,  220,  256, 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


297 


280. 
Martial,  87,  88. 
Martin,  232. 
Maury,  125,  158. 
Matter,  28. 
Mary,  Queen,  1 14. 
Marvin,  214. 
Maynard,  211. 
Mayr,  231. 
McCabe,  59. 
McCurdy,  227. 
McDaugall,  216. 
McKellops,  7,  142,  15: 

233- 
McLain,  215. 
McQuillen,  213,  229. 
Mellersh,  35. 
Menavius,  66. 
Mensue,  156,  158. 
Mellotte,  203. 
Metrodorous,  75. 
Meyer,  1 15. 
Middleton,  62,  63. 
Miller,  159. 
Mingledorff. 
Mohamed,  6y. 
Moffatt,  215. 
MoUyneaux,  212. 
Momier,  141. 
Monte,  122. 
Morton,  35. 
Morgan,  217. 
Morrison,  215. 
Moses,  41. 
Mouton,  141. 
Mudd,  214. 
Munson,  232. 


N 

Nedden,  158. 
Newman,  218,  232. 
Nicholi,  144. 
Nicodemi,  162. 
Norman,  221. 
Nortan,  228. 
North,  233. 
Noyes,  216,  217. 

O 

O'Connor,  85. 

Oliver,  217,  231. 

Omar,  29. 

Origen,  28. 

Ottofy,    142,    152,   204, 

233. 
Ottolengui,  204,  233. 
Overfield,  224. 
Ovid,  95. 


Palmer,  231. 

Parmly,   205,   206,  224, 

226,  227. 
Panaca,  75. 
Pare,  123,  134,  135. 
Parkhurst,  185. 
Parkinson,  151. 
Pasch,  158. 
Patence,  i  59. 
Patrick,  32,  72,  75,   85, 
Paul,  42.  [282. 

Pawelz,  I  59. 
Parreidt,  159. 
Payne,  68,  72,  120,   122, 

229. 


298 


THE    RISE,   FALL   AND   REVIVAL 


Peabody,  219. 
Peale,  192. 
Pearson,  230. 
Peebles,  214. 
Pergamus,  78. 
Perreterre,  142. 
Peterman,  158. 
Pierce,  204,  213. 
Piggott,  227. 
Pike,  232. 
Pitt,  175. 
Plantou,  192. 
Platschick,  163. 
Plough,  224. 
Plutarch,  102. 
Poeller,  85. 
Pope,  14. 
Porter,  221. 
Pliney,  84,  86,  90. 
Prittie,  222,  233. 

Q 

Quincrot,  143. 
Quinet,  142. 


Rabelais,  66. 
Randall,  183. 
Read,  33. 
Redard,  162. 
Reese,  217. 
Renan,  59. 
Rhazes,  68. 
Rhymer,  152,153- 
Ricci,  141. 

Richardson,    202,    217, 
242. 


Richmond,  202. 

Richter,  159. 

Rigdon,  232. 

Rivers,  214,  215. 

Rix,  219. 

Robinson,  152,253,220, 

222. 
Robbins,  221. 
Roberts,  219,  229. 
Rochambeau,   173. 
Rodgers,  49. 
Rohe,  231. 
Rolliu,  142. 
Romola,  1 11. 
Ross,  217. 
Ruspin,  147. 
Russell,  221. 


Sabine,  134. 
Sagana,  88. 
Sage,  232. 
Saran,  142. 
Saunders,  152. 
Seel,  163. 
Schmedicke,  158. 
Schmid,  162. 
Shakespeare,  96,  273. 
Sharp,  43. 
Shattuck,  222. 
Sherwood,  1 1. 
Sheridan,  151. 

Sibley,.  194- 
Simon,  28. 
Singleton,  221. 
Sinitzin,  163. 
Skinner,  223. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS. 


299 


Smith,34,  212,  213,214, 

219,  221,  227,  228. 
Snowdin,  228. 
Spalding,  230,  232. 
Spencer,  1 17. 
Spooner,  224,  225. 
Stafford,  158. 
Starr,  203. 
Steel,  82,  100. 
Stellwagen,  213,  214. 
Stevens,  142. 
Stevenson,  233. 
Stockton,  192,  227. 
Stolper,  158. 
Storey,  232. 
Sudduth,  220,  233. 
Swain.  220. 


Taft,  95,  142,  152,  212, 

216,  227,  233. 
Talbot,  95,  97. 
Tandinier,  173. 
Taylor,  212,  227. 
Tees,  229. 
Thailkill,  231. 
Thais,  88. 
Theon,  28. 
Thomas,  202,  219,  222, 

233- 
Thompson,     153,     204, 

220. 
Tiberius,  92. 
Timaeus,  147. 
Toland,  228. 
Tomes,  152. 
Tover,  147. 


Townsend,  212,  213. 
Trenor,  224. 
Truesdell,  232. 
Truman,  153,  213,  217, 

233,  277. 
Tuller,  147. 
Turnefort,  66. 
Tyson,  229. 

U 

Ulrich,  216. 
Underwood,  232. 
Urban  V.,  Pope,  94. 


Van  Antwerp,  212. 
Van  Der  Belen,  144. 
Van  Der  Maessen,  144. 
Valentine,  144. 
Van  Marter,6o,  95,  104, 

105,  106. 
Van  Rhyn,  103. 
Vesalius,  123,  144. 
Virgil,  89,  95. 

W 

Wagoner,  230. 
Walker,  71,  y6,  90,  222. 
Walkins,  221. 
Walton,  160. 
Wardle,  214. 
Warren,  39,  233. 
Washburn,  28,  30. 
Washington,    166,    177 

179,  180,  188,  192. 
Watling,  216. 
Watson,  166,  167. 


300 


THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


Watt,  157,  231. 
Webb,  202. 
Webster,  200. 
Weden,  229. 
Weeks,  220. 
Weiss,  162. 
Welchens,  230. 
Welch,  186,  231. 
Wello,   107. 
Weston,  202. 
Westcoat,2ii,2i2,2i3. 
Wetherbee,  216. 
White,    193,    194,    227, 

229. 
Whitelock,  169. 
Whitmore,  219. 
Whistlar,  222. 
Wildman,i93,  213,  229. 


Wilkerson,  231. 
William,  King,  1 14. 
Williams,  202,  230. 
Willard,  232. 
Wilson,  220,  222. 
Winder,  21 1,  212,  216 
Wood,  229. 
Woodward,  214. 
Woofendale,-   147,   149 

164,  165,  200,  223. 
Wright,  260. 


Young,  230. 


Ziegler,  229. 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS. 


301 


SUBJECT  INDEX. 


A 

^sculapea,  family  of,       - 
*'            snakes, 

77 
86 

Additional  Bibliography,  Arabian, 

69 

'             Chinese, 

- 

50 

Egyptian, 
'             Etrurian,    - 

40 
109 

*             Grecian, 

83 

*             Hebrew, 

- 

44 

*  Japanese, 

*  Phoenician, 

57 
63 

*             Rise  and  Fall, 

124 

"                       "             Roman, 

_ 

lOI 

Alexandrian  Library,  27,  28,  29,  30,  65,  78, 
School, 

79,9 

1,92 
28 

Amalgam  fillings,  Etrurian, 
American  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 

Cyclopaedia,  27,  30,  35,  46,  56, 
62,  63,  64,  71,  72, 
78,  82,  85,  86,  93, 

9, 
58, 
77> 
94, 

108 
219 

99, 
American  Dental  Art, 

113, 
164, 

114 
289 

1 

Association, 

21 

"         Journal  of  Dental  Science,    35,  82, 

168,  182,  204, 
Ancient  dentures,    35,    36,  39,  42,  48,  50,  52, 

65,  'iZ,  92,  102, 
Ancient  fillings,  cement,         _  -  _ 

clay,        -  -  - 


206 


105 
80 


302 


THE    RISE.   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 


A 

ncient 

fillings,  gold,    35, 

37, 

38, 

79, 

80, 

81, 

-       90, 

92, 

94, 

98, 

99, 

108,  152 

lead, 

- 

3 

7,  I 

52, 

171,  174 

lime, 

- 

- 

-      80 

silver,     - 

> 

- 

- 

81 

thriac, 

- 

- 

-      91 

"            "         wax, 

- 

- 

65 

**        instruments,  dental, 

- 

36,  37 

'*        tooth-brushes. 

- 

- 

66 

''        women-dentists. 

- 

- 

-      39 

Arabian  Bibliography,  Additional, 

- 

69 

Dental  Art, 

- 

- 

64-70 

Colleges, 

- 

- 

64,  65 

Aphaerisis,  dental, 

- 

- 

22 

Archives  of  Dentistry, 

30, 

32, 

35, 

75, 

76,  104 

Art,  Dental,  Arabian, 

64-70 

'          American, 

- 

- 

164-300 

'          Austrian,    - 

- 

- 

162-164 

'          Chinese, 

- 

- 

46-51 

Dutch, 

- 

- 

143-145 

'          Egyptian, 

- 

- 

27-41 

'          English, 

- 

- 

145-155 

Etrurian, 

- 

- 

102-1 10 

'          European, 

- 

- 

123-164 

'          French, 

- 

- 

134-143 

*         German, 

- 

- 

155-162 

'          Grecian, 

- 

- 

70-84 

'          Hebrew, 

- 

- 

41-45 

'          Japanese, 

- 

- 

51-58 

'          Phoenician, 

- 

- 

58-64 

'          Rise  and  Fall  of. 

- 

1 10-124 

*         Roman, 

- 

- 

84-102 

'          Scythian, 

- 

- 

60-63 

'     Fall  ofDental, 

- 

II 0-125 

*     Revival,      " 

- 

- 

1 10-125 

Artificial  dentures,  brass, 

- 

- 

36 

( ( 

*'          copper. 

- 

- 

-   53 

OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


303 


Artificial  dentures,  gold. 

36,  39.  43.   135.   176 

'                '*          iron, 

55.  177 

'                 "          ivory, 

36 

,  53,  65,  88.  135, 

176,  177.  178 

'                "          silver. 

-     43,  135 

steel. 

-      55 

'                "          stone, 

53 

*                "          wood. 

36,  53 

*         teeth,  bone. 

-      37.  48 

'              "     brass, 

-      36 

'              "     ebony,      - 

157 

"     gold. 

-      43 

*              ''     ivory, 

37,  44,  48.  53,  60 

'              *'     silver, 

-      43 

*              "     wood. 

37,  39,  44,  53,  55,  89 

Artist,  dental. 

-    235 

Aust 

rian  Dental  Art, 

162-164 

B 

Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  182,  205, 

207,  21 1, 
Barbers  and  dentistry,  102,  iii,  113,  114,  115, 
I  16,  I  17,  1 18,  1 19,  120,  123, 
-  113,  114,  115,  117,  119, 
Bathers  and  dentistry,  -  -         113, 

Bibliography,  Additional,  Arabian, 

'     Chinese,  - 


Barber-surgeons 


Egyptian, 

Etrurian, 

Grecian, 

Hebrew,    - 

Japanese, 

Phoenician, 

Rise  and  Fall 

Roman, 

Bone  dentures. 


65,  88, 


223 

134 

134 

123 

69 

50 

40 

109 

83 

44 

57 

63 

124 

lOI 

i6r 


304  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

Bone  teeth,  .  .  _  3^^  ^g 

Blacksmiths  and  dentistry,  11 1,  116,  117,   118, 

123,  147 
Brass  artificial  teeth,         -  -  -  36 

Bridgework,  -  60,   102,  104,   105,   136,  202 

Britannica,  Encyclopaedia,  27,  46,  58,  59,  62, 

63,  64,  68,  71,  72, 
-jj,  78,  82,  84,  90, 

93^94,99,  113,  114. 

116,  122,  169 

British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  -  35,  79 

Odontographic  Society,  Trans.,        -  35 

C 

Canadian  Dental  Art.       -  -  -  80 

Cement  fillings,  ancient.  -  -  -       80 

Chinese  Bibliography,  Additional  -  57 

Dental  Art,  -  -  46-51 

Celluloid  dental  base-plate,  -  -  196 

Century  Dictionary,  -  21,  22,  23,  28 

Clasp,  gold,  .  -  .  ^-j^  88,  89 

Clay  fillings,  -  -  -  -       81 

Columbian  World's  Fair,-  -       17,  23,  60,  98 

Council  of  Tours,         _  _  _  93^   113 

Cosmos,  Dental,  10,  21,  28,  30,  35,  49,  55, 
56,  64,  65,  6-],  6S,  75,  79. 
80,  88,  89,  91,  92,  95,  96, 
104,  118,  140,  149,  150,  151, 
157,  159,  162,  171,  203,  261, 

267,  268,  275 
Crowns,      -  -  -  -  136,  202 


Demorest's  Family  Magazine,  -       55,   180 

Dental  Aphaerisis,      -  -  - 


70 


Advertiser,  50,  166,  168,  173,  181,  182, 


OF    DENTAL   PROSTHESIS. 


305 


Dental  Advertiser,        166,   168,   173,   181, 

184,   185 

'      Art,  Arabian, 

64-70 

'         '*     American,     -              -              - 

164-300 

*         **     Austrian, 

162-164 

'         •'     Chinese,         _              .              _ 

46-51 

'*     Dutch,     - 

143-145 

*'     Egyptian,       - 

27-41 

'         *'     English, 

145-155 

'         **     Etrurian, 

102-110 

'         *'     European, 

123-164 

-     Fall  of 

1 10-125 

*         ''     French, 

134-143 

*         ''     German,         _              .              - 

155-162 

*         **     Grecian, 

70-84 

'        ''     Hebrew,         _              -              - 

41-46 

*         **     Japanese, 

51-58 

'         *'     Phoenician, 

58-64 

*         *'     Revival  of             -              - 

110-125 

'         '*     Roman,          -              .              . 

84-102 

'         '*     Scythian, 

60-62 

Dental  Colleges: 

■    Alabama  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 

222 

American      "                   "               *' 

-     219 

Baltimore,    *' 

182, 

205,  207, 

211,  223 

Boston  Dental  College, 

215 

Buffalo  University,  dental  department,        222 

Columbian     "                 "                ^' 

223 

Dental  Hospital  of  London, 

154 

*'               "          and  School  of  London,       154 

Detroit  Dental  College 

222 

Denver  University,  dental  department,        220 

Dublin  Dental  Hospital, 

-       154 

Ecule  Dentaire  de  Paris,      - 

143 

Edinburg  Dental  School, 

-       154 

Exter  Dental  Hospital, 

154 

306  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Dental  Colleges,  continued : 

First  Dental  School  of  Vienna,                -  162 

Glasgow  Dental  School        -              -  154 

Guy's  Hopital  Dental  School     -              -  154 

Harvard  University,  dental  department,  215 

Homeopathic  Hospital  College,               -  220 

Indiana  Dental  College,       -              -  216 

Institute  Odontolechnique,                -  143 

Iowa  University,  dental  department,     -  218 

Kansas  City  Dental  College,      -              -  223 

Kentucky  University,  dental  department,  219 

King's  College,  dental  department,        -  154 

Lake  Forest  University,  dental  dept. ,  217 

Liverpool  University,  dental  department,  154 

Maryland  Dental  College,          -              -  216 

Maryland  University,  dental  department,  218 

Meharry  Dental  School,               -              -  221 

Michigan  L^niversity,  dental  department,  216 

Minnesota  L^niversity,  dental  department,  220 

Missouri  Dental  College,                    -  214 

National  Dental  Hospital  College,          -  154 
New  Orleans  Dental  College,    -              -215 

New  York  Dental  College,                 -  223 

Northwestern  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  218 

"              L^niversity,  dental  dept.,  214 

Ohio  Dental  College,                    -              -  212 

Owen's  College  of  Dentistr}-,            -  154 

Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  213 

L^niversity,  dentel  dept.,  217 
Philadelphia  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  212,213 

Plymouth  Dental  School,                    -  154 

Queen's  College,  dental  department,      -  154 

Royal  College  of  Surgeons,                -  154 

Edinburg,  154 

Southern  Medical  College,  dental  dept.,  219 

Tennessee  University,  dental  dept.,  221 

L'nited  States  Dental  College,          -  222 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  307 

Dental  Colleges,   continued : 

University  Dental  School,  -  -       220 

Vanderbilt  University,  dental  dept.,  217 

Western  Reserve  University,  dental  dept.,  224 

Dental  Depots,  -  -  -       194,  199 

"        Education,  -  -  204,  223 

Dental  Journals: 

American  Dental  Review,  -  228 

"  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  225, 

**  "  227,  229 

Oral  &  Dental  Science,  233 
"  *'       and    Library  of  Dental 

Science,  -  226 

Annurie  Generale  Desdenteste,  -       142 

Archives  of  Dentistry,  -  -  230 

"  -  -  -       153 

( (  ( <  _  _  2  "^2 

British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  -       152 

Brown's  Dental  Advertiser,               -  288 

Canadian  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  230 

Caulk's  Dental  Annual,                -  -       232 

Centralblatt  fuer  Zahnheilkunde,     -  159 

Chicago  Medico-Dental  Bulletin,  -       233 

Cincinnati  Dental  Lamp,                    -  228 
"          Medical  and  Dental  Journal,        232 

Correspondenz  Blatt  fuer  Zahnaerzte,  188 

"                pei  Dentisti,            -  162 

Dental  Advertiser,         _              -  -       230 

Brief,            -              -              -  288 

Circular  and  Examiner,        -  229 

Cosmos,               -              _  -       229 

Eclectic,       -              -              -  232 

Enterprise,         _              _  -       228 

Headlight,                  -              -  231 

Instructor,          _              .  -       229 

Intelligencer,             -              -  227 


3o8 


THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 


Dental  Journals,  continued: 
Dental  Jairus, 

Journal,  The, 

Luminar}-, 

Mirror, 


"       and  Brooklyn  Visitor, 
^Messenger  and  Visitor, 
Monitor  and  Quarterly  Miscellany, 
News,  _  .  _ 

Observator, 

and  Oral  Science  ^lagazine, 
Office  and  I>aboratory,  229, 

Practitioner, 

Quarterly,  _  _  - 

Record,        .  _  _ 

« <  _  _  _ 

Register,  _  .  > 

Reporter, 

Review,        _  _  _ 


Science  and  Art  Journal, 

Student, 

and  Surgical  ^Microcosm, 

Times, 

Times  and  Advertiser, 

Tribune, 

Visitor, 

World, 
Dentist  Himself, 
Dentist's  Beacon-Light, 
Der  Zahnarzt, 
"    Zahnaerztliche  Bote,     - 
*'    Zahntechnische  Reform, 
Den  Norske  Tandlaegeforenings, 


231 
233 
231 

227 
230 

233 
227 
227 
228 
230 
228 
230 
230 
232 
229 

153 
231 
227 
228 

153 
232 

233 
288 
232 

233 
229 
228 

233 
227 

233 
233 
231 
158 

163 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS^  309 

Dental  Journals,  continued: 

Deutsche  Monatschrift  fuer  Zahnaerzte,       i  59 

Dominion  Dental  Journal,          -  -       163 

Facts,           -              -              -  -              232 

Family  Dental  Journal,                -  -       228 

Family  Dentist,        .              -  -              228 

Forceps,              .              _              _  _       228 

Gazette,  Odontologique  de  France,  142 

-  -              142 

Health  and  Home,          _              .  .       232 

Herald  of  Dentistry,              -  -               231 

Houghton's  Dental  Annual,        -  -       230 

Independent  Practitioner,  -              231 

International  Dental  Journal,    -  231,  233 

Items  of  Interest,            -              -  -       231 

Johnston's  Dental  Miscellany,  -              230 

Journal  of  British  Dental  Association,  153 

"       fuer  Zahnheilkunde,  -              159 
L'Art  Dentaire,               ...       142 

L'Avenir  Dentaire,                -  -              143 

Le  Cosmos  Dentaire,     -              -  -       142 

Le  Monde  Dentaire,              -  -              142 

L'Odontologie,         _              -  .     142,   162 

Le  Odontoloxia,               -              _  .       163 

Le  Progress  Dentaire,                 -  -       142 

La  Progress  Dentistico,       -  -              163 

La  Reform  Dentistico,                 -  -       163 

La  Scienza  Dentaire  Revista,  -               163 

Merritt's  Dental  Messenger,       -  -       228 

Messager  Odontologique,  -               163 

Missouri  Dental  Journal,             -  -       230 

Nordisk  Kvartalskrift,          -  -              163 

New  England  Journal  of  Dentistry,  231 

''     York  Dental  Recorder,  -              227 

Journal,          -  -        288 

Odontographic  Journal,      -  -                 288 

Odontascop,       .              -              -  -       163 


3IO  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 

Dental  JoiLvnalSy  continued: 

Oesterreichesche  Vierteljahrsschrift,  162 

Ohio  State  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  291 

Pacific  Dental  Journal,                 -              -  232 

Practical  Dentist,                   -              -     228,  232 

People's  Dental  Journal,              -              -  229 

Pennsylvania  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  230 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  152 

Revue  International,               -              -  143 

**       Mensuelle  des  Maladies,               -  142 

"       Odontalgia,                 -      *       -  142 

"       Odontologique  de  Bruxells,  145 

Belgique,         -  145 

Schweitzersche  Vierteljahrsschrift,  162 

Semi-Annual  Dental  Expositor,               -  228 

Skandinavisk  Tidskrift,        -              -  163 

Southern  Dental  Examiner,       -              -  229 

*'               *'        Journal,     -               -  229 

*'               '*        Luminary,       -               -  187 

Southern  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Dentistry,  288 

St.  Louis  Dental  Quarterly,               -  230 

Journal,  -  ^231 

Suboviachebny  Vestnick,                    -  163 

Texas  Dental  Journal,          -              -  232 

Tidskrift  for  Tandlaeger,            -              -  163 

Vicksburg  New  Era,             -              -  230 

Vierteljahrsschrift  fuer  Zahnkuenstler,  159 

Vulcanite,           _              _              _              _  229 

Western  Dental  Journal,      -              -  288 

Zahnaerztliches,  Wochenblatt,         -  159 

Zahnaerztlicher,  Almanach,       -              -  158 

Dental  Periodicals,           _              _              -  225 

Prosthesis,  definition,      -              -  21 

"           derivation,            -              -  22 

**  implication,  21,  22,  23 

**            pronunciation,             -  24 

**  syntax,  -  2  1,  22,  23,  24 


OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS.  3II 

Dental  Prosthesis,  syllabrlcation,  -  23,  24 

Dental  Prothesis,  -  -  21,  22,  23 

Dentists'  Art,  .  _  .  257 

Dentists,  Women,  ancient,  -  -  39 

Dentistry  and  Bathers,  -  -  113,  123 

"  Barbers,  102,  1 1 1,  1 13,  1 14,  1 15, 

*'  ''  1 16,  1 17,  1 18,  1 19,  120, 

123,  134,  147 
**  Blacksmiths,  1 1 1,  116,  117,  118, 

123,  147 
**  Cobblers,  -  -  123 

**  Jewelers,  iii,  116,  118,119,120, 

123,  162 
Priests,  72,   73,   ^6,   83,  84,  85, 

86,  87,  93,  104,  113 

"  Science,  .  _  _       257 

"  Fall  of,  -  -  16,  1 10 

"  made  a  profession,  -  116 

"  Revival  of  -  -  -no 

Dentures,  bone,  -  -  65,  88,  161 

gold,  -  -        36,  39,  134 

ivory,         36,  65,  Z'^,   135,   176,   177,  178 

iron,  -  -  -       53,  i77 

silver,  -  -  -       135 

stone,  .  -  .  53 

Dunglison's  Dictionary,         -  -  -         21 

Dutch  Dental  Art,  .  _  _      134-145 


Ebony  artificial  teeth,  -              -              151 

Edict,  '*  tooth  for  teeth,"     -  -              -         41 

Education,  dental,           _  _              _     204,  223 

Egyptian  Bibliograpey,  Additional,  -         50 

Dental  Art,            -  -                   27-41 

"               "       profession,  -              -                 34 

"               "       schools,      -  -              -         32 


312  THE    RISE,   FALL   AND    REVIVAL 

Egyptian  dentures,  artificial,  -  35,  36,  39 

fillings,  gold,  -  35,  37,  38 

lead,  -        37,   152,  171,   174 

Encyclopaedic  Dictionary,  -  21,  23,  28 

English  Dental  Art,  -  -  145-155 

"        Hippocrates,         -  -  -  145 

European  Dental  Art,  -  -  125-164 

Etrurian  Bibliography,  Additional,  -       109 

''         Bridge  work,  -     95,   102,   104,   105 

"         Dental  Art,  -  -  102-110 

Exposition,  Columbian  World's,  17,  23,  60,  98 


Fall  of  Dentistry,          -  -                ^6,   11 0-125 

Father  of  Modern  Surgery,  -  147 

Fillings,  ancient,  amalgam,  -  -  108 

"               "        cement,  -              -  80 

clay,           -  -  -  81 

''        gold,  35,   37,  38,  79,  80,  81, 

''     90,  92,  94,  98,  99,  108,  152 

lead,          -  37,  152,  171,  174 

lime,  -              -  80 

silver,        -  -  -  81 

•'               *'        thrice,  -              -  91 

wax,           -  -  -  65 

French  Dental  Art,         _  _              _  134-143 


German  Dental  Art,      .  -  _       1155-162 

Gold  clasps,  -  -  -  6y,  88,  89 

dentures,  -  36,  39,  43,   135,   176 

fillings,    35,    37,    38,    79,  90,  92,  94,  98, 

99,   108,   152 
foil,  -  140,   141,   171,   172,   174 

leaves,        -  -  -  -  156 

Grecian  Dental  Art,  _  _  _    70-84 


OF   DENTAL   PROSTHESIS.  31  3 


God  of  Medicine, 
Goodyear  Rubber  Company, 

H 

Harvard  Dental  Company, 
Hebrew  Bibliography,  Additional, 
Hebrew  Dental  Art, 
Historical  Review, 
Hygiene  Prosthetic, 


Illinois  State  Dental  Society, 
Introductory  Remarks, 
Independent  Practitioner, 
Instruments, 

*'  dental,  ancient. 

International  dictionary. 
Iron  artificial  teeth. 
Items  of  Interest,   10,  28,  30,  35,  39,  42,  115, 

116,   119,   137,   138,   176,   177,   186,  277 


Japanese  Bibliography,  Additional,  -         57 

Japanese  Dental  Art,  -  -  51-58 

Jewelers   and    Dentistry,    iii,    116,    118,   119, 

120,   123,   162 
Johnson  &  Lund,  -  -  -  194 

Johnston's  Dental  Miscellany,  -         35,  67,  149 

Journal  of  British  Dental  Association,  82,  89 


Lead  fillings,  -  -  37,   152,   171,   174 

Library,  Alexandrian,  27,    28,  29,  30,  64,  yS, 

79.  91,  92 


- 

70 

196 

_ 

194 

- 

44 

41-46 

- 

16 

22 

21 

16 

99, 

103,  104 

07, 

108,  161 

37 

- 

21 

53,  177 

314  THE    RISE,   FALL    AND    REVIVAL 


Lime  filling,        _              _              _ 
Logan  Crown, 
Lost  Art,  dentistry, 

80 

-       136 

109,   1 10,   125 

M 

^Magazine  of  American  History, 
Mechanical  Dentistry,                    -  . 
Medical  practice  prohibited, 

Temples, 
Medicine,  god  of, 
Missouri  Dental  Journal. 

177.   179 

264 

90 

72,  84,  85,  104 

70 

-     114.  119 

N 

New  York  Dental  Journal, 

37,  38,  80,  94 

o 

Odontographic  Journal,         -  -  -         30 


Penalty,  surgeon's,  -  -  -         Sy 

People's  Encyclopaedia.    27,    30,    46,    47,    62, 

64,  J2,  yS,  113 

Library  of  Information,      -  28,  30,  35 

Periodicals,    dental, 

Phoenician  Bibliography,  Additional, 

Bridgework, 

Dental  Art, 

Phrenological  Journal, 

Pivoting  teeth. 

Porcelain  Art.  _  _  _ 

'*  Bridgework, 

Dental, 
Powder,  tooth, 
Priesthood    and    dentistry,  72,  73,  y6,  S^,,  84, 

85,  S6,  8y,  93,   104,   113,  123 


_ 

225 
63 

59. 

-  58 

71.  y6, 

95 

;-64 

90 

201. 

202 

198, 

199 
136 

80, 

135 
81 

OF    DENTAL    PROSTHESIS. 

315 

Prohibition  of  medical  practice, 

_ 

90 

Prosthesis,  dental,  definition. 

- 

21 

*'               ''          derivation, 

21,  22 

,  23 

**               "          implication,            2i 

,  22,  23 

24 

•'               '*          syntax,          -          21 

,  22,  23 

,  24 

•*               ''          syllabrication, 

- 

24 

'*               "          pronunciation, 

- 

24 

"          vis.  Mechanical  Dentistry, 

- 

264 

Prothesis,  dental,      - 

23 

24 

R 

Remarks,  Introductory, 

- 

16 

Review,  Dental,         10,  30,  32,  49,  yz, 

75. 85. 

282 

Review,  Historical, 

- 

16 

Revival  of  Dental  Art, 

1 10- 

125 

Roman  Bibliography,  Additional, 

- 

lOI 

*'          Dental  Art, 

84- 

102 

8 

Salutation,                  _              _              _ 

- 

15 

School,  Dental,  Egyptian, 

- 

32 

Scientists,  dental. 

- 

235 

Scythian  Dental  Art, 

60-63 

Sibley  Dental  Company, 

- 

194 

Silver  artificial  teeth. 

- 

43 

"       dentures. 

- 

135 

''      fillings. 

- 

81 

Speakman  Dental  Company, 

- 

194 

Surgeon,  Barber,  113,  114.  115,  117,   I 

19,   120, 

134 

Surgeon's  company, 

- 

114 

Surgeon's  penalty. 

- 

87 

Surgery,  Doctor  of  Dental, 

- 

210 

St.  Louis  Dental  Quarterly, 

- 

50 

Steel  artificial  teeth, 

- 

55 

Stone  artificial  teeth, 

- 

53 

3i6 


THE    RISE,   FALL    AXD    REVIVAL 


Teeth 

,   artificial 

bone, 

37, 

48 

•' 

*' 

brass, 

36 

( ( 

*' 

copper. 

. 

53 

<< 

*♦ 

human. 

- 

60 

*  i 

( < 

iron. 

53, 

177 

i  < 

(• 

ivory,  37, 

44,  53,  60,  72,  127, 

151 

i  ( 

( < 

silver. 

_             _             _ 

43 

« t 

i  < 

steel, 

- 

55 

( i 

( « 

stone,    - 

- 

53 

i  i 

" 

wood, 

37^  39^  44.  53,  55, 

89 

Tooth  brush,  ancient, 

- 

66 

i  « 

for  tooth,' 

'  edict,     - 

- 

41 

<  ( 

powder,  ancient, 

80, 

81 

Tours 

,  Council  of, 

-    93, 

113 

Vulcanite,  first, 


195 


W 

Washington's  artificial  dentures,  176,  177,  178,  179 

*'             letter  to  dentist,  -               180 

Wax  fillings,          -             -              -  -              65 

Webster's  Dictionary,              -  -              -       21 

Western  Dental  Journal,         -  -            35,   166 

W^hite,  S.  S.,  Dental  Mnfg.  Co.,  -  194,  286 

W'ilmington  Dental  Mnfg.  Co.,  -              -     194 

Women  dentists,  ancient,               -  -              39 

Women's  Dental  Association,  -              -     276 

Wooden  artificial  dentures,           -  -               36 
teeth,          37,  39,  44,  53,  55,  89 

World's  Columbian  Exposition,  -          17,  23,  6c 


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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


■  2  19S7  ikoU 


MAY  1  6  RBCB 

MftR  2  0  1969 


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:A.   URECl 

BMA^iSilBl977 

'ay  2  7  RtC'O 


MED  LIB 

FEB  2  8  1988 


Mf\Yin57|iFEB011989 
^^y^a--     MAR  05 1989 

810ME0.  LIB. 

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